The Civil Rights Movement Challenges and Changes in the Movement

Seeking Greater Equality Pride in history and black identity Commitment to change in social and economic structures Civil rights groups begin to drift apart by 1965 Movement turned to the North; not legal segregation, but segregation by tradition

Northern Segregation De Facto Segregation: segregation that exists by practice and custom De Jure Segregation: segregation by law Harder to convince whites to share economic and social power than a lunch counter “white flight” Deteriorating cities March in Chicago 1966, “open city” to end de facto segregation

Urban Violence Erupts Clashes between white authority and black civilians Race riots in Harlem, Watts, Detroit In 1967, more than 100 race riots African American rage baffled many whites Didn’t realize African Americans needed economic equality; opportunity in jobs, housing and education Great Society money now being used to fight the war in Vietnam, not the war on poverty

Detroit Riots 1967

New Leaders Voice Discontent Malcolm X: Islamic minister; blacks should be separate from whites –Malcolm Little –Dropped Little and used “X” (his slave name) –Jail at 20 for burglary Nation of Islam: Black Muslims –Elijah Muhammad –Appealed to racial pride of blacks –Controversial; lots of press –Called for armed self-defense (scared whites) –Resent within the Nation of Islam

The Nation of Islam

Ballots or Bullets In 1964, broke with Elijah Muhammad over differences in strategy and formed another Muslim organization Embarked on pilgrimage to Mecca; learned of orthodox Islam Attitude toward whites changed drastically –“If you or I don’t use the ballot, we will be forced to use the bullet. So let us try the ballot.” –While giving a speech in Harlem, shot and killed because of his split from the Black Muslims

Malcolm X Assassinated

Black Power Tensions between SNCC and other civil rights groups had been building James Meredith set out on a 225 mile “walk against fear” Shot by a white racist and too injured to continue SNCC, CORE and MLK set out to finish walk, SNCC and CORE volunteers became militant “We Shall Overcome” to “We Shall Overrun” Stokely Carmichael: “Black Power” speech after being released from jail (for protesting) beaten by police –MLK urged him to stop using the phrase –Carmichael refused and urged SNCC to stop recruiting whites –Focus on black pride

Black Panthers Oakland, California Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale Fight police brutality in the ghetto Self-sufficiency for black communities, full employment and decent housing African Americans should be exempt from military service (unfair amount of blacks drafted into Vietnam) Black leather jackets, berets and sunglasses Mao Zedong; police shoot outs, FBI investigations Established daycare centers, free breakfast programs, medical clinics, homeless assistance, etc.

A Turning Point in the Civil Rights Movement MLK Jr. objected to the Black Power movement Seemed to have a sense that his death was near Memphis, gone to support city’s striking garbage workers Assassinated on his hotel balcony by James Earl Ray

Reaction to King’s Death Robert Kennedy’s speech to a black neighborhood in Indianapolis Campaigning for president Plea for nonviolence Worst urban rioting in US history; over 100 cities exploded in flames Two months later, Kennedy assassinated

The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement Kerner Commission: established to study the cause of urban violence –One main cause: white racism –Nation is moving toward two societies –Report called for the creation of new jobs, construct new housing and end de facto segregation –Johnson administration ignored recommendation because of white opposition

Civil Rights Gains Civil Rights Act of 1968 End of school segregation Increase in high school completion; black college enrollment Increase in jobs Greater pride in racial identity African American history and literature at universities Movies and television 2/3 eligible blacks registered to vote Political leaders President Barack Obama

Unfinished Work Public support for the movement had declined because of rioting and the Black Panthers White flight continued; school progress reversed Unemployment nearly three times higher for blacks Affirmative Action: special efforts to hire minority groups –Controversial –U of M