Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning Learning Conditioning Watson Thorndike Behavior Reinforcement Skinner Operants Classical cond. Punishment Bandura Pavlov UCS/UCR Pos/Neg Extinction CS/CR Bobo-doll exp. Token Economy NS Schedules of Reinf. Spontaneous Recovery Operant cond. Interval Response Modeling Ratio Discrimination Instinctive drift Tollman Generalization Little Albert Theories of Learning Phobias Latent learning Biological preparedness

What is learning? Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience When a change occurs in an organism’s behavior, learning has occurred Conditioning is the process of learning ____________________________ between environmental events and behavioral responses associations What are 3 types of learning? 1.Classical 2.Operanct Observational

3 Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, with the most famous of psychological experiments, discovered the phenomena we call classical conditioning - learning to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. His work provided a basis for behaviorism - the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov ( )

4 Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus, NS) does not. During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who first described the basic process of conditioning that is now called ___________________________________ Principles of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a process of associating an ___________ with a neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus (UCS) The natural stimulus that reflexively produces a response without prior learning is called the __________________________ unconditioned stimulus The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus is called the ___________________________ unconditioned response The ______________ was originally a neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a reflexive response. conditioned stimulus The _________________ is the learned, reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus. conditioned response

Sally did not enjoy going with her mother to the grocery store. One day when Sally and her mother went to the grocery store, the baker gave Sally a cookie. Sally loves cookies, she gets excited when she eats a cookie. Every time Sally sees the baker at the grocery store, the baker gives Sally a cookie. Now whenever Sally sees the baker, she gets excited…and Sally has begun to enjoy going to the grocery store. What is the UCS? What is the UCR? What is the NS? What is the CS? What is the CR?

7 Acquisition Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1.In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2.The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. In higher-order conditioning a previously conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a new (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Factors that Affect Conditioning The Strength of the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus, the stronger the association. The timing of stimuli presentations also affects the strength of the conditioned response. Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination ___________________________ occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response Generalization _______________________ occurs when a particular conditioned response is made to one specific stimulus but not to the other, similar stimulus Discrimination In conditioning, ______________________ is the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of the conditioned response. Extinction _________________________ is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery In the early 1900s, _________________________, an American psychologist founded a new school, or approach, in psychology called ___________________________ John B. Watson, Behaviorism

9 Watson believed that human emotions and behaviors are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. He showed how specific fears can be conditioned with the controversial “Little Albert” experiment in which an 11- month-old boy was conditioned to fear a rat. Applications of Classical Conditioning John B. Watson Brown Brothers

10 Operant & Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both forms of associative learning, but there are key differences.  Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.  Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

Watson emphasized the direct observation of behavior and rejected the methods of introspection and the study of unconsciousness. The famous case of Little Albert demonstrated that classical conditioning could be used to deliberately establish a conditioned emotional response in a human subject. A ______________________ is a classically conditioned intense dislike for or an avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food. John Garcia demonstrated that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory rats under controlled conditions. His findings challenged several of the basic assumptions of classical conditioning. ______________________ is the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. Biological preparedness __________________ deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences. Edward Thorndike was the first psychologist to systematically investigate animal behavior and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences.

12 Biological Predisposition Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. Animals can most easily learn and retain behaviors that draw on their biological predispositions

On the basis of his observations, Thorndike formulated the _________ The law of effect...responses followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” are strengthened, and are more likely to occur again in the same situation, whereas responses followed by an “unsatisfying or unpleasant state of affairs” are weakened and are less likely to occur again. B.F. Skinner believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified, and ____________. Observed An operant was a term used to describe any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.

14 Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. Yale University Library

__________________ or Skinnerian conditioning, explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. __________ occurs when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated ________________ reinforcement strengthens the response and increases the frequency of that behavior by adding something pleasurable ___________ reinforcement strengthens the response and increases the frequency of that behavior by taking away something aversive

16 Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Positive reinforcement increases a behavior by presenting a pleasurable stimulus after the response. Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by stopping or removing a negative stimulus. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

18 Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

19 Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. Primary & Conditioned Reinforcers

A _____________ is the specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant is more likely to be reinforced _________ is reinforcing successful approximations of a behavior until the correct behavior is displayed; acquisition is the beginning process of learning a behavior Shaping ______________ reinforcement, a pattern of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced Partial reinforcement is a pattern of reinforcement in which the occurrence of a particular response is only intermittently reinforced Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned behavior and occurs because of the disappearance of reinforcement The _____ is the phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement are specific preset arrangements of partial reinforcement that produce different patterns and rates of responding With a ___________schedule, reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses With a variable-ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after ____________ number of responses With a fixed-interval schedule, a reinforcer is delivered for the ___________after the preset time interval has elapsed With a __________ schedule, reinforcement occurs for the first response emitted after an average amount of time has elapsed…but the interval varies from trial to trial

A primary reinforcer is one that is naturally reinforcing for a given species A conditioned reinforcer or secondary reinforcer, is one that has acquired reinforcing values by being associated with a primary reinforcer. ________ is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated Positive punishment decreases the response and decreases the frequency of the behavior by adding something _______ Negative punishment decreases the response and decreases the frequency of the behavior by ___________ something pleasurable Punishment is more effective if it immediately and consistently follows a response

Punishment 1.Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. 2.Punishment teaches discrimination. 3.Punishment can teach fear. 4.Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems. It doesn’t teach a more appropriate response It may have undesirable results such as passivity, fear, aggression, or hostility 23 In relation to parenting and physical punishment of children, these four drawbacks have been found.

Behavioral modification is the application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors Edward C. Tolman, an American psychologist, did not believe that you needed reinforcers to learn Even in the absence of a reward, latent learning or learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior can occur ____________________ is the phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior Learned helplessness Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Reinforcement or Punishment? Positive or Negative? 1. Johnny talks back to mom. Mom takes away game boy. _________________ 2. Johnny talks back to mom. Mom slaps him. __________________ 3. Johnny talks back to mom. When mom sees Johnny, she cries. _________________ 4. Johnny talks back to mom. Mom ignores Johnny. Johnny talks back even more. ________________ 5. Johnny talks back to mom. Mom yells at Johnny. Johnny talks back even more. __________________

26 Biological Predispositions John Garcia Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not. Courtesy of John Garcia

The instinctive drift interferes with the animal’s ability to learn a new behavior Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the actions of others Which theorist is associated with observational learning? Albert Bandura In observational learning, it is the _________ of a reward or reinforcement that affects the performance of what has been learned observation What major psychological perspective is associated with observational learning? Social learning theory Remember the Bobo Doll experiment…

Observational Learning

Recap…

Sally did not enjoy going with her mother to the grocery store. One day when Sally and her mother went to the grocery store, a new baker was working in the bakery department and the baker gave Sally a cookie. Sally loves cookies. Every time Sally sees the baker at the grocery store, the baker gives Sally a cookie. Now whenever Sally sees the baker, she gets excited…and Sally has begun to enjoy going to the grocery store. Classical Conditioning or Operant conditioning? Explain.