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Chapter 6: Learning
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2. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
Distinguishes between changes due to maturation and changes brought about by experience
Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning
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3. Classical Conditioning
Type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
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4. Classical Conditioning
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5. Classical Conditioning
Habituation
Applying conditioning principles to human behavior
Phobias
PTSD
Panic attacks
Can be relieved by classical conditioning
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6. Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
Spontaneous recovery
The re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest
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7. Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
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8. Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization
Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
Ability to differentiate between stimuli
Conditioned Stimulus
New Stimulus
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9. Classical Conditioning
Learned taste aversion
When humans learn they are allergic to certain foods they learn to avoid that food
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Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
B.F. Skinner
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Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated
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Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
Reinforcer
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
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Operant Conditioning
Primary reinforcer
Satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s prior experience
Secondary reinforcer
A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcement
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14. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Positive reinforcement
A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
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15. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Negative reinforcement
Unpleasant stimulus which when removed from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future
Escape conditioning
Avoidance conditioning
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16. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again
Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus
Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant
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17. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
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18. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Behavior that is reinforced every time is occurs
Partial reinforcement
Behavior that is some but not all of the time
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19. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcement is given only after a certain number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number
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20. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-interval
Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low
Variable-interval
Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
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21. Schedules of Reinforcement
“Scalloping Effect”
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22. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus control training
Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence
Discriminative stimulus
Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow the response
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Operant Conditioning
Superstitious behavior
Shaping
Process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Operant Conditioning
Biological constraints
Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors
Application of conditioning in rats to discover land mines
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25. Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
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26. Cognitive Approaches to Learning
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27. Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Latent learning
A new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it
Observational learning
Learning through observing the behavior of another person called a model
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28. Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Violence in television and video games
Most experts agree that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively, and research supports this claim
“Media copycat” killings
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29. Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Learning styles
Relational style
Master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon
Analytical style
Master material best when they can carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation
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30. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Learning Styles
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