1. Ch 18: conjunctions

2. Function: connect words, phrases, and clauses They do not all function the same way Categories: – Coordinating conjunctions – Conjunctions and their meanings – Correlative conjunctions – Subordinating conjunctions – Adverbs that act like conjunctions

3. Coordinating conjunctions Function: Connect words or groups of words of the same grammatical type, such as verbs, nouns, and adjectives OR of the same grammatical structure such as phrases and clauses. Examples: and, but, or, yet, for, so, and nor.

4. If connecting more than 2 elements, it is placed between the last 2 elements of the series. The other elements are separated by commas. – In order to find the treasure, you will need a compass, a shovel, a map, and a lamp. Can connect infinitives and infinitive phrases. – She wants to watch a movie or (to) listen to music.

5. When connecting independent (can stand alone = complete thought) clauses, the conjunction is usually preceded by a comma. If connecting independent clauses, it creates a compound sentence. – She spoke to him harshly, but there was a real pity for him in her heart.

6. If the subject, verb, or auxiliary is the same in both clauses, the one in the second clause can be omitted. The comma can be omitted too. – He spoke slowly but (he) pronounced each word in anger. – The men worked on the house and (worked) on the shed in the backyard.

7. Conjunctions and their meaning “But” and “yet” indicate a contrast in the elements they connect. – His knee was hurting, but he finished the race anyway. “Or” indicates a choice or offers alternatives between the elements it connects. – On Sunday, we will go to the lake, or to the river. “Nor” typically connects negative statements. When followed by an independent clause, the subject & verb are inverted. – They did not fix my camera, nor did they fix my lens.

8. “For” is generally synonymous with “because.” “So” has meaning similar to “therefore.” “For” and “so” can also express a cause-and-effect relationship. – They could not find the car keys, so they broke the window to get it.

9. Correlative conjunctions Can be used to with the subjects or objects of a sentence – He teased both my sister and my cousin. – We saw neither the crime nor the criminal. Follow same pattern as coordinating conjunctions, but have two parts. Common examples: both…and, not only…,…but also…, either…or…, and neither…nor… Generally, when 2 subjects are connected, the subject closest to the verb determines the verb form. But when 2 subjects are connected with “both….and…”, the verb is always PLURAL. – Not only my sister but also my cousin is here. – Both my sister and my cousin are here.

10. Complete sentences are separated by a period, not a comma. – It was very cold. He put on a sweater. – We borrowed some money. We bought a used car. A comma can be used before a coordinating conjunction to combine two sentences into 1. If the subjects are identical the second subject can be omitted and the comma is not used. – It was very cold, and he put on a sweater. – We borrowed money and (we) bought a used car. If the sentences are very short, the comma can be omitted. – The concert ended and he left.

11. Subordinating conjunctions Connect subordinate, or dependent clauses to independent clauses. Most common: after, although, as, as if, as though, because, before, even if, even though, except, if, now that, since, than, though, unless, until, when, where, while – They will head home after they finish eating. – Tom will not join the team unless he can be the captain.

12. Several express time relationships when the action of the dependent clause takes place in relation to the independent clause. “Because” introduces a clause that can provide a reason for something. It answers “why.” “Ever since” and “now that” express an explanation or a time relationship.

13. “Although,” “even though,” and “though” express exception or indicate that a condition exists despite some other condition. When following a negative statement “unless” expresses requirements or conditions. “If” expresses a condition that must be met, and the independent clause describes what will happen when that condition is met.

14. No punctuation is required before many subordinating conjunctions, especially those that express a time relationship, if the conjunction follows the independent clause. Relative pronouns (who, whom, that, which, and whose) can function as subordinating conjunctions as well because they introduce independent clauses. “Than” can work as a conjunction as well. Often it introduces an elliptical clause (in which information that is understood is omitted).

15. It is common to use “than” as a preposition. – Cathy is more talented that him. The verb in the dependent clause may be included, which requires “than” to be treated as a conjunction. – Cathy is more talented than he is.

16. Adverbs that act as conjunctions Also act as adverbs because they modify one of the independent clauses. Most common: afterwards, anyway, besides, consequently, eventually, finally, for example, for instance, however, instead, later, likewise, nevertheless, next, now, otherwise, still, then, therefore, thus, unfortunately – The car engine broke down; consequently, we did not finish the race.