Long-Term Memory Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009 EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition

Overview Types of Long Term Memory Relation between encoding and retrieval Encoding processes and their consequences Retrieval strategies Autobiographical memory Claudia J. Stanny

Long Term Memory: Ebbinghaus (1885) Long-term Retention Functions Claudia J. Stanny

Types of Long Term Memory Claudia J. Stanny

Distinctive Characteristics of LTM Organization of information Schemas Capacity Duration Bahrick: permastore Encoding – impact on retention Retrieval mechanisms Forgetting: availability versus accessablity Claudia J. Stanny

Encoding Strategies: Levels of Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) Orienting tasks assigned at study to induce different levels of processing Shallow processing (physical features of stimuli) Does the word contain an E or a G? Is the word presented in capital or lower case letters? Intermediate processing Write down a word that begins with the same sound. Deep processing (semantic encoding) Rate words on your perception of their PLEASANTNESS (1 = UNPLEASANT 7 = PLEASANT) Claudia J. Stanny

Recognition performance for words processed at different levels Data from EXP 3082 (2002) Claudia J. Stanny

Variations on Deep Processing What kinds of processing “count” as deep processing? Distinctive encoding Encoding differs or makes a stimulus stand out Isolation effects; unique encodings Elaborate encoding Create a code that includes multiple aspects Complex codes; many connections to other representations Claudia J. Stanny

Self-Reference Effect Processing task: Does this word relate to you? Recognition performance is as good as for a semantic processing task Biggest improvement seen when participants think the word does apply to them (46%) than when it does not (34%) Claudia J. Stanny

Generation Effect Slamecka & Graf (1978) What is the effect of processing depth when you generate the code yourself versus when you have the coding given to you? Read Condition Shallow: SAVE – CAVE Deep: SEA – OCEAN Generate Condition Shallow: SAVE – C____ (rhyme) CAVE Deep: SEA – O_____ (synonym) OCEAN Claudia J. Stanny

Encoding Specificity Match between cues encoded at study and cues available during retrieval Claudia J. Stanny

Emotion, Mood and Memory Pollyanna Principle Rate of forgetting for pleasant & unpleasant events Mood-dependent congruence Mood-dependent memory (encoding specificity) Claudia J. Stanny

Retrieval from LTM Types of Retention Tasks Explicit Memory Tasks Aware that memory is being used/tested Subjective experience of intentional use of memory Implicit Memory Tasks Task is perceived as a problem-solving task or other cognitive challenge Claudia J. Stanny

Comparing Memory Tasks Explicit Memory Tasks Implicit Memory Tasks Recall Cued recall Recognition tests yes/no recognition multiple choice tests Word completion task V__L__A__E Word stem completion task OC __ __ __ Repetition priming (RT tasks) Lexical decision task Anagram solving LVGEALI → _______ Claudia J. Stanny

Evidence for different types of LTM Dissociation of performance on explicit and implicit memory tasks Variables improve performance on explicit memory but do not influence implicit memory performance Depth of processing Variables improve implicit memory performance but do not influence explicit memory Benefits of number of repetitions Note: some variables have the same effect on both types of task (proactive interference) Claudia J. Stanny

Effect of LOP on performance on an implicit and an explicit memory task Shallow processing task Does the word have a B or a P? Deep processing task Rate the word on its pleasantness (1 – 7) Implicit memory test Anagram task Explicit memory test Free recall Data: EXP 4507L Spring 2006 Claudia J. Stanny

Amnesia Differences in performance by amnesiacs on implicit and explicit memory tasks Claudia J. Stanny

How do experts differ from novices? Amount of knowledge in area of expertise Quality of organization of information in LTM More efficient encoding of new information More successful retrieval of information Differences in cognitive strategies used Chunking and organization of new material Identifying distinctive characteristics of stimuli Procedures used to solve problems Better metacognition about processing Judgments about task difficulty Monitoring progress on a problem Claudia J. Stanny

Expertise is Context-Specific Expertise emerges from extensive deliberate practice in a particular domain 10 years of deliberate practice required (Ericsson, 2003) Expertise in one domain does not make one an expert in every domain Superior memory performance in one area of expertise does not generalize to superior memory performance in general Problem identification and efficient solution is also domain-specific Claudia J. Stanny

Autobiographical Memory Special case of episodic memory Memory for events of our personal life Interaction with semantic memory: Role of schemas in autobiographical recall Consistency bias Source monitoring Identifying the origin of a memory or belief Claudia J. Stanny

Recall of autobiographical memories across the life span (Rubin, 1997) Reminiscence Bump Forgetting Function Infantile Amnesia Claudia J. Stanny

Flashbulb Memories Highly detailed episodic memories of an event Contain many autobiographical details Source information for the news of the event Detailed contextual information Where you were, what you were doing, who you talked to, what your emotional response was, etc. Are flashbulb memories special? Do they include errors seen in other memories? Are they subject to forgetting like other memories? Claudia J. Stanny

Eyewitness Memory Estimator Variables System Variables Characteristics of the witness or witnessed event known to have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections System Variables Characteristics of the legal / investigative process known to have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections Variables that produce memory distortions Misleading questioning Post-Information effects Claudia J. Stanny

Factors that influence the accuracy of eyewitness memory Delays between the event and recall Intrusions related to misinformation Reconstructive nature of memory Schema-based intrusions Social pressure Demand characteristics of questioning the encourage production of more information or a specific answer Positive feedback following identifications during lineups increases confidence without increasing accuracy Claudia J. Stanny