Understanding Human Development Chapter 6

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Objective Distinguish between growth and development. © ampyang/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Understanding Human Development Growth refers to physical changes Stages of development are similar for almost everyone

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Discussion What is the difference between growth and development? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Objective Identify the main types of human development. © spotmatik/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Physical Development Physical development includes –gross-motor skills, such as walking and throwing –fine-motor skills, such as picking up objects and eating with a spoon

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Cognitive Development Cognition involves –knowing –memorizing –sensing –organizing © StockLite/Shutterstock.com continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Cognitive Development Cognitive development is also called intellectual development Cognitive skills increase gradually over time Connections between brain nerve cells are key to cognitive development Brain connections strengthen with experiences starting in infancy

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Social-Emotional Development Social-emotional development includes –relationships –feelings –social skills –self-confidence and self-esteem –self-control continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Social-Emotional Development Challenges increase as development progresses © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Objective Develop examples that illustrate principles of development. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Principles of Human Development Development is relatively orderly Developing is a gradual, continual process Development is interrelated Development varies among individuals

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Development Is Relatively Orderly Development occurs in a sequence of steps Predictable steps consistently follow one after another Teachers use this knowledge to design appropriate learning strategies for their students’ age

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Discussion Give examples of how development occurs in predictable steps. © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Development Is a Gradual, Continuous Process Developmental changes happen gradually They become apparent over time © Kharidehal Abhirama Ashwin /Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Development Is Interrelated Acquiring new skills requires gains in several areas –Physical development –Cognitive development –Social development –Emotional development

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Reflection As a teen, in what ways have you developed physically? cognitively? socially? emotionally? © Archipoch/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Development Varies Among Individuals Many factors affect development Each person’s progress is unique –Different rates –Slightly different time schedules

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Objectives Define a developmental theory. Apply developmental theories to real-life situations. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Theories of Development Researchers formulate developmental theories by –analyzing behavior and development –observing people –performing experiments –considering earlier research studies continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Theories of Development Developmental theories help teachers –understand what students are capable of and why –get a broader picture than limited experiences and observations provide Many developmental theories exist

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) © Felix Mizionikov/Shutterstock.com continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Both influence development Researchers question how large a part each plays in development Genetics affect –biological factors –intellectual potential –environment a person seeks out continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Behaviors involve multiple genes affected by a variety of environmental factors No single gene determines behavior © marema/Shutterstock.com continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Environmental factors include –family –peers –community –media –health –nutrition and physical activity continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Family –Often the greatest effect on development –Parenting techniques –Stimulating home environment Peers –Influence increases in later childhood and adolescence –Offer equal status, unlike adult-child relationships continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Community –Where a person lives can affect behavior and career expectations –Relationship with feelings of self-worth –Some offer more cultural opportunities Media –Often blamed for social problems –Depends on how a person interprets messages –Effects may not be immediately apparent continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Heredity Versus Environment Health –Some diseases and illnesses interrupt normal development –Availability of health care is also a factor Nutrition and physical activity –Can affect physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Reflection Which do you think has influenced your development more, heredity or environment? © Archipoch/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Behaviorist Theories Behaviorism: behavior determined by forces in the environment beyond individuals’ control People’s thoughts, feelings, and actions depend on experience, rather than genetics or free will Infants are “blank screens”

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning—behaviors are associated with responses –Pavlov rang bell when feeding dog –Eventually, when Pavlov rang the bell, the dog salivated even if no food was given Classical conditioning may occur without training

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning—people repeat behaviors that have positive results Reinforcement should be removed gradually in unpredictable patterns Negative reinforcement (punishment) can reduce unwanted behaviors

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory People of all ages observe and imitate others’ behavior © Lobke Peers/Shutterstock.com continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivation Each person’s response is based on personal reactions and the way the individual processes information

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Four stages of cognitive development At each stage, individuals incorporate what they learn into skills developed in previous stages Children base their thinking on what they learn through their senses continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory StageAgeDescription SensorimotorBirth to 2 yearsLearn through senses Preoperational2 to 7 yearsCommunicate through language Concrete operational 7 to 11 yearsThink logically, solve problems Formal operational 11 years and older Think logically and abstractly, make predictions

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Learning is active and best when students learn in context, including –past experiences –knowledge –current reality Bruner calls this theory constructivism continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Lack of readiness and ability to learn come from many sources Bruner states teachers must be concerned with the context of learning, which includes –being cognizant of student challenges –removing barriers and finding appropriate ways to help students learn –presenting material in developmentally appropriate ways continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Teachers encourage students to discover new learning through active dialog, or Socratic learning –Teachers ask probing questions –Students answer questions with additional questions in discussion © Golden Pixels LLC/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Children are social beings Develop through interactions with parents, teachers, other students Social interaction is critical to cognitive development

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory Students learn best by doing, or through experiential learning, which can result in –gaining new skills –new ways of thinking Experiential learning has four elements: –Concrete experience –Observation and reflection –Formation of hypothesis –Testing the hypothesis

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Eight stages At each stage, people face and must successfully resolve a psychological or social conflict Unsuccessful resolution affects future stages of development continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Stage/AgeTask InfancyTrust versus mistrust ToddlerAutonomy versus shame and doubt Early childhoodInitiative versus guilt Middle childhoodIndustry versus inferiority AdolescenceIdentity versus role confusion Young adulthoodIntimacy versus isolation Middle adulthoodGenerativity versus self-absorption Older adulthoodIntegrity versus despair

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Reflection Which of Erikson’s stages have you already successfully completed? How do you know? © Archipoch/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Everyone follows the same progression Not everyone attains the highest level © iQoncept/Shutterstock.com continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional morality—depends on whether behavior will be punished or rewarded Conventional morality—motivated by society’s laws and rules Postconventional morality—decisions based on principles and motivated by integrity continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg believed children and teens should move to the next level of moral development instead of being taught about specific virtues Kohlberg observed only men and boys, no females Researchers such as Carol Gilligan believe women use ideas such as caring as a factor in making moral decisions

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Objective Analyze how developmental theories impact teaching. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Which Theory Is Correct? Each theory is valid to some extent Some theories may be more sound than others Conflict between theories leads to more valid insights Teachers can benefit from understanding several approaches and applying them in the classroom

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. For Discussion Which theory discussed do you think would be most valuable to you as a teacher? Why? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock.com

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Key Points Principles of development help in understanding how people change throughout life Researchers form developmental theories based on their observations and experiments Teachers use these theories to help promote their students’ development

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Review ____-____ skills depend on the development of small muscles.  Fine-motor Name four basic principles of human development.  Development is relatively orderly; is a gradual, continual process; is interrelated; varies among individuals continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Review Which behaviorist developed a theory of operant conditioning?  B. F. Skinner What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive theory?  sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website. Review Bruner’s theory that involves interacting with new knowledge by forming hypotheses, testing, and making decisions is called _____.  constructivism What are the four elements of experiential learning?  concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of a hypothesis, and testing the hypothesis