Organizational Behavior Course Model OB Outcomes: Attitudes and Behaviors Effort Job Satisfaction Absenteeism Turnover Stress Workplace Violence Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Commitment Employee Theft Safety and Accidents Sexual Harassment Grievances Influenced by Managers Using Application of Individual Differences Perceptions Attributions Attitude change Values Personality Group Dynamics Reward Systems Job Design Leadership

Individual Differences Perceptions Attributions (special case) …perceptions about what causes another’s behavior Attitudes Values Personality

Appreciating Individual Differences Cornerstone of selection & placement Avoid the “error of extrapolating from yourself” Definition of perception: How individuals notice and interpret a situation; how they organize and make sense of their environment How attractive is this person? Would you hire this person?

Perceptual Variability Depends on many things as prior two examples showed -optical illusions that are related to our sense organs -interpretations also depend on prior experiences Crime Scene Simulation

Factors Affecting Perceptions Highly variable across & within people because of: -source of information -emotional factors -stereotyping -situation (order, non-verbal cues, timing, location in hierarchy) -other perceptual barriers (e.g., halo effect, projection)

Asked of SupervisorsAsked of Employees “How often do you “How often does your give…? Supervisor give…? Gives:% who said very often % who said very often 1.) Privileges 2.) More responsibility 3.) Pat on the back 4.) Sincere praise 5.) Training for better job 6.) More interesting work Source: Likert, New Patterns of Management

Attribution Theory Refers to what we perceive causes an another person’s behavior (success or failure), and affects our future orientation toward that person Internal causes or explanations are perceived to be under the control of the person (e.g., ability, effort) External causes or explanations are perceived to be determined by the situation (e.g., luck, task difficulty)

Attributions Affect Future Behavior: Student Misses Team Meeting Is this an Internal (I) or External (E) Reason Perceived Cause of “Failure” ? Outcome Just did not care Flat tire Forgot meeting location

Attribution Principles 1.Once we identify a suitable explanation for behavior, we stop seeking alternatives. 2. Ego defensive or self-serving bias: We tend to accept credit for our successes and blame our failures on the environment. Overcome in appraisals by the “sandwich technique”

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors (i.e., chance, task difficulty, the environment) and overestimate the influence of internal factors (i.e., ability, effort, personal factors) when making judgments about others Listen to subordinates’ perceptual attributions and then try to be objective (e.g., is F due to lack of effort (internal factor) or inadequate training (external factor)? 3. Fundamental Attribution Error

Summary: Importance of Perceptions and Attributions for Managers 1. Be aware of how perceptual and attributional errors can bias your decision making 2. Remember “perceived reality” is more important than objective reality. 3. Managers have a responsibility and an opportunity to manage perceptions and attributions--theirs’ and their subordinates’!

Individual Differences Perceptions Attributions (special case) Attitudes …mental states of readiness, predispositions to react in certain ways Values Personality

Examples of “Changeable” Work-related Attitudes 1.Job Involvement: The degree to which a person psychologically identifies with his/her work. 2.Organizational Commitment: The extent to which a person identifies with an organization. It is regarded as a multidimensional attitude (One with parts): a. a strong belief and acceptance of an organization’s goals and values. b. a willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization (e.g., overtime, United Way) c. a strong desire to remain a member of the organization 3.Others: Professionalism, union commitment, perceived justice, perceived organizational support

Individual Differences Perceptions Attributions (special case) Attitudes Values …more fundamental beliefs about conduct or existence. Heavily influenced by culture or historical era. Personality

EXAMPLES OF VALUES: * The importance of the individual vs. the collective * Democracy or freedom - existence * Fair-play -conduct * Hard work * Open mindedness * Self-reliance * Equality * Family * Comfortable life * Hospitality (gift exchanges, alcohol)

MYSTERY VALUE EXERCISE Response Options:SDDNASA Hard work makes a man or woman a better person 2. Wasting time is as bad as wasting money. 3. A good indication of a person’s worth is how well he or she does the job. 4. If all other things are equal, it is better to have a job with a lot of responsibility than one with little responsibility.

Personality Enduring aspects of a person which emerge from physiological, psychological, and socialization factors. Data from identical twins reared apart and together suggest that most variance in personality is due to heredity: 50% Heredity/genes (physiological) 20-35%Environment 15-30%Transient states and measurement error Uses (understanding, fit, selection), MMPI

Personality Measure 1 = strongly disagree5 = slightly agree 2 = disagree6 = agree 3 = slightly disagree7 = strongly agree 4 = neither disagree nor agree 1.When I get what I want it’s usually because I worked hard for it. 2. When I make plans I am almost certain to make them work. 3. I prefer games involving some luck over games requiring pure skill. 4. I can learn almost anything if I set my mind to it.

5. My major accomplishments are entirely due to my hard work and ability. 6. I usually don’t set goals, because I have a hard time following through on them. 7. Competition discourages excellence. 8. Often people get ahead just by being lucky. 9.On any sort of exam or competition, I like to know how well I do relative to everyone else. 10. It’s pointless to keep working on something that’s too difficult for me.

Scoring for X Personality Trait * Reverse score items 3, 6, 7, 8, and 10 1 = 74 = 4 7 = 1 2 = 65 = 3 3 = 56 = 2 * Add the scores for all 10 items * High scores = internal locus of control Low scores = external locus of control

Locus of control refers to whether one believes life is more under personal control or environmental control. Internals are more satisfied/involved with their jobs, absent less, perform better when they can exert control, adjust to international assignments well Externals prefer directive styles of supervision; they value friendly coworkers & considerate supervision

The Future: The "Big Five" Personality Model * Extraversion * Agreeableness * Conscientiousness * Emotional Stability * Openness to Experience

SUMMARY STRATEGY FOR HANDLING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Less Permanent, More Permanent More Situational, Take as a given and Subject to managerial influence deal with PerceptionsAttributions Attitudes Values Personality Changeable Deep-Seated Highly variable Influenced byHas biological within andWork Groups, Peers component. across individuals Socialization.