Three Stages of Memory

Stage Model of Memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

Three Stages of Memory Three memory stages that differ in… Capacity – How much info can be stored Duration – How long the info can be stored Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration. Information is transferred from one stage to another Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; long-term memory; attention; encoding; maintenance rehearsal; retrieval

Sensory Memory Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics Capacity—large can hold many items at once Duration—very brief retention of images .3 sec for visual info 2 sec for auditory info Sensory Input Memory Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

Sensory Memory Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory othewise info is lost/forgotten Remember Neisser’s Selective Attention Test counting basketball passes? Sensory Input Memory Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

Sensory Memory Divided into two types: iconic memory–visual information echoic memory– auditory information Sensory Input Memory Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; echoic memory; Sperling

Types of Sensory Memory Iconic Memory or Visual sensory memory—brief memory (.3 second) of an image or icon. George Sperling studied iconic memory (try his experiment yourself with a link on our website) Echoic Memory or Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories (2 seconds)

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

Sperling’s Experiment Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second Report as many letters as possible Subjects recall only half of the letters Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No How did Sperling know this? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Note: This slide and the next slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.

Sperling’s Experiment Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared tone signaled 1 row to report recall was almost perfect High Medium Low Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: This slide and the previous slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner. Not an afterimage because Sperling showed he could present the letters to one eye and influence the memory by presenting a bright flash to the other eye. This would not have worked if the visual information was stored on the retina. Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

Short Term or Working Memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention; working memory; short-term memory

Working Memory Store Function - conscious processing of information where information is actively worked on Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds) Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention

Working Memory Store What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds? To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)... 8 5 7 9 1 6 3 Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory Notes: This demonstration will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first two lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining number will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears.

857-9163 Working Memory Store What is the number? The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember the number? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory

Maintenance Rehearsal Mental or verbal repetition of information Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds Maintenance rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal Sensory Memory Working or Short-term Memory Attention Sensory Input

Maintenance Rehearsal What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal? Memory decays quickly To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time) BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; maintenance rehearsal Notes: This demonstration represents what occurs if students do not have the opportunity to rehearse the information. First, the sequence of numbers will appear. (Important note: instruct students before the number sequence begins that as soon as the final number is presented, they should immediately start counting backwards by seven from 1000). The slide will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first five lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining numbers will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears. 6 2 8 5 9 4

628-5094 Working Memory Store What is the number? Without rehearsal, memory fades 628-5094 Peterson’s STM Task Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall Without rehearsal, memory fades Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention

Working Memory Model Baddeley (1992) 3 interacting components Central Executive Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketch Pad Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; Baddeley; central executive; phonological loop; visuospatial skectchpad

Working Memory Model Central Executive Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info Phonological loop - holds verbal information Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory; brings new information into working memory from sensory and long-term memory Central Executive Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketch pad Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; Baddeley; central executive; phonological loop; visuospatial skectchpad Do Visuo-Spacial Sketch Pad Demo from Website Now

Ways to Improve STM: Chunking Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information expands working memory load Which is easier to remember? 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6 483 792 516 Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking Sloth Meets Chunk

Long Term Memory LTM

Long-Term Memory Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information more passive form of storage than working memory Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Encoding—process that controls movement from working (STM) memory to long-term memory storage (getting info in) Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store (getting info out) Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Encoding: Automatic and Effortful Processing

Automatic vs. Effortful Processing Some information, such as where you ate dinner yesterday, you process automatically. Other information, such as this chapter's concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.

Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Automatic processing Unconscious encoding of information Examples: What did you eat for lunch today? Was the last time you studied during the day or night? You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Effortful processing Requires attention and conscious effort Examples: Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

Types of Effortful Processing Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you already know. Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself. Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember. Levels of Processing framework – info encoded at a deeper level will be more easily remember than info encoded at a shallow level. How can you do this? (See middle of page 246).

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's levels of processing framework Information that is processed at a “deep” level is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory than information processed at a “shallow” passive level. When studying for classes, actively question new information, think about its implications, and try to generate your own examples based on your experiences

Cerebellum Hippocampus Types of LTM Explicit W/ conscious recall Implicit No conscious recall General Knowledge (semantic memory) Personal Events (episodic memory) Skills and Procedures (procedural memory) Conditioning (CC & OC)

Dimensions of LTM Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory

Two Types of Explicit Memory Episodic information—information about events or “episodes” Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples: What month is your birthday? Do you like to eat caramel apples? Q: Why are these explicit memories? A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory

Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events General facts and definitions about the world Examples: How many tires on a car? What is a cloud? What color is a banana? Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

Semantic Memory Q: Why are these explicit memories? A: Because you can actively declare your answers Important note: Though you may have personal experience with these items, your ability to answer does NOT depend on tying the item to your past i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week when you ate a banana to say that bananas are yellow Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Introduction Studies of malfunctions of memory have helped researchers understand how we form (encode), store, and retrieve memories. Memories are recorded successively as sensory memory (the immediate initial stage), short-term memory (or working memory), and long-term memory. In one extreme type of memory deficit, caused by accident or disease, a person is unable to form new memories and lives in an eternal present. Clive Wearing, a world-renowned choir director and musical arranger, suffered brain damage following viral encephalitis, which destroyed both temporal lobes, the entire hippocampus, and much of the left frontal lobe. He lost his ability to form new memories. He has no memory of anything beyond the last minute or two.

Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory (Newer Video) Clive and Deborah Wearing have one of their regular encounters, thirteen years after Clive suffered brain damage. Deborah describes Clive's repeated experience of waking up for the first time, as recorded in a diary. If you’d like to view a more recent video of Clive click HERE. (5:54) (12:35) Segment #10 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Questions Why does Wearing retains many memory-related abilities, such as speech, musical ability, and ability to recognize his wife. What is the role of the hippocampus (totally destroyed in Wearing) in memory formation?

Implicit Memory Nondeclarative memory Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness Three subtypes Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory;

Subtypes of Implicit Memory Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Classical Conditioning Studied earlier Implicit because it is automatically retrieved Must be stored in the cerebellum Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Procedural Memory Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses Examples: Riding a bike How to speak grammatically Tying your shoe laces Why are these procedural memories implicit? Can’t readily describe their contents try describing how to tie your shoes They are automatically retrieved when appropriate Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory

Priming Priming is influence of one memory on another priming is implicit because it does NOT depend on awareness and is automatic Here is a demonstration Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration Unscramble the following words: O R E S L T E P A K T A L S TSME L O B S O M S ELAF ROSE PETAL STALK STEM BLOSSOM Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration ELAF = LEAF Why not respond FLEA? Because flower parts were primed (flower power) Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Two Types of Priming Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming; perceptual priming

Conceptual Priming The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory Example: Flower power priming demonstration Does not depend on sense modality (works across the senses): pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO CONCEPTUAL PRIMING BY SHOWING THE BUNNY ON THE NEXT SLIDE AND THEN SPEAK THE WORD “HAIR” TO THE CLASS AND ASK THEM TO SPELL IT.

Priming across modalities Look at the picture . Then when the instructor says a word, write it down. Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO: SAY THE WORD “HARE’ TO YOUR CLASS AND ASK THEM TO WRITE IT DOWN. MANY WILL WRITE “HARE” ALTHOUGH “HAIR” IS MORE COMMON. Why is the uncommon response produced? PRIMING of a sound by a picture.

Perceptual Priming Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features Does not work across sense modalities Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

How are memories organized? Clustering - hierarchical organization Semantic Network Model - associations Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

Clustering: Hierarchical Organization Related items clustered together to form categories Related categories clustered to form higher-order categories Remember list items better if list presented in categories poorer recall if presented randomly Even if list items are random, people still organize info in some logical pattern Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

Hierarchical Organization Hockenbury Slides (Schulman) Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

Semantic Network Model Mental links between concepts common properties provide basis for mental link Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory Activating one concept can spread and activate other associations. Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

Semantic Network Model See examples at Human Cloud Brain Red Fire House Cherry Apple Rose Pear Ambulance Engine Truck Bus Car Flower Violet Hot Pot Stove Pan Pie Hockenbury Slides (Schulman) Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

How is Memory like a Computer?

Summary Modal model of memory three memory stores (sensory, working and long-term memory) control processes (attention, maintenance rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern movement of information within and between stores