Gender

Two Primary Issues The Cultural construction of Gender Gender Relations

Sex Versus Gender Sex refers to biological differences, Gender refers to the cultural construction of male and female characteristics. The ways members of the two sexes are perceived, evaluated and expected to behave. (what different cultures make of sex.)

Gender Boundaries We demand that the categories of male and female be discrete since gender is culturally constructed the boundaries are conceptual rather than physical the boundaries are dynamic, eg. now it is acceptable for men to wear earrings. Boundaries require markers to indicate gender some of which are natural such as Voice Physique Dress Behaviour Hair style Kinetics Language use

Gender identity Why is it important How do we react when someone seems to have traits of each category? social intercourse requires that the interacting parties know to which gender category `the other' belongs Felicita Vestvali 1824 - 1880 New York opera star who specialized in singing contralto "trouser roles."

Is he a he? Or is he a she? Or is she a he? How does your reaction to this image compare to the earlier one of a woman dressed as a man? Is there a double standard?

Women cross dress all the time. The difference is perception. Acceptance or Rejection by society

The Relativity of Gender If the categories `man' and `woman' are culturally constructed what are the implications? There can be no universal meaning to the category woman or man. What it means to be a man or a woman in a particular society is relative to that society. we do not have to be restricted to two genders Cross-dressing often retains clues to the underlying gender base and the resulting image appears to exist somewhere between the polarities of male and female – containing elements of both – as if a third gender had been created.

Third Genders transsexual – gender/ sex incongruent, “trapped in wrong body” but with the gender identity of their organs/sex change operation transvestite – dressing as other gender, biological sex (cross-dresser) homosexual bisexual eunuch – castrated male hermaphrodite – both sets of biological organs Virgin? Boy/Girl?

The Hijras of India and Pakistan Hijra means hermaphrodite in Urdu but most Hijras are homosexual transvestites, some of whom have gone through a crude sex-change operation (transexual) Cultural descendants of the court eunuchs of the Mughal Empire (1526-1858), Perceived neither as men nor women but as a third gender

getting dressed for a job entertaining at a Pakistani wedding Hijras now earn their living as beggars, prostitutes. and by dancing at carnivals, weddings and births. The Hijras are both feared and pitied in Pakistan, feared for their supposed ability to place curses, pitied for being outcast children of Allah. Believed to hold great power because of their close relationship with the Mother Goddess - Mata Bahuchara

Berdache Common among all native north American groups George Catlin (1796-1872) Dance to the Berdache Drawn while on the Great Plains, among the Sac and Fox Indians, the sketch depicts a ceremonial dance to celebrate the “two-spirit person”. The men tease him but vie for his recognition, which is deemed an honor. Common among all native north American groups In everyday life the two-spirit male typically would wear women’s clothes and do women’s work. He would be accepted as “one of the girls.” He might take a husband tribe, or might have affairs with several, or both. Generally two-spirit males were not expected to have sexual relations with women.

Multigendered people were/are usually presumed to be people of power. Because they have both maleness and femaleness totally entwined in one body, they are known to be able to ‘see’ with the eyes of both proper men and proper women. They are often called upon to be healers, or mediators, or interpreters of dreams. Besides their spiritual abilities, their capacity for work also figured into the high status of two-spirit people. Even though a two-spirit male would have taken on the gender identity of a woman, he would still have the endurance and strength of a man We'wha (1849-96), a Zuni berdache, lived in New Mexico. He is shown holding a ritual vessel, dressed in women's clothing.

Deification, ostrazation, and medicalization are common coping strategies for societies with strong gender dichotomies, and are often based on reproductive potential These systems do not always have to be harmful to the third gendered/sexed individual, but often are Western societies label third sexes and genders a “problem” and therefore feel compelled to “fix” them As we move out of an age where reproduction was our main purpose in life maybe we need to revise and expand our ideas about how gender and sex roles work with each other

Is it possible to have a genderless society?

Gender stratification: Gender roles: tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes. Gender stereotypes: oversimplified but strongly held ideas of the characteristics of men and women. Gender stratification: an unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom) between men and women, reflecting their different positions in social hierarchy.

Gender roles:

ROSIE THE RIVETER Gender Roles All the day long, Whether rain or shine, She's a part of the assembly line. She's making history, Working for victory, Rosie the Riveter. Keeps a sharp lookout for sabatoge, Sitting up there on the fuselage. That little girl will do more than a male will do. Rosie's got a boyfriend, Charlie. Charlie, he's a Marine. Rosie is protecting Charlie, Working overtime on the riveting machine. When they gave her a production "E," She was as proud as she could be. There's something true about, Red, white, and blue about, Rosie the Riveter. Gender Roles Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb, "Rosie the Riveter," (New York: Paramount Music Corp., 1942

In the 1940s, women were encouraged to help the war effort by getting a job outside the home. But it was family and country rather than money, status, or power that they were encouraged to toil for . Coke 1942 “For whether she rears a family or mans a rangefinder, a woman needs the physical support of a good foundation." and "Amongst other munitions of war, Berlei are still making foundations.".  November 1942

1950s - mass consumption in high gear, TV ads idealized the woman as the wife and homemaker, and the man as the bread winner. But also the sex kitten

Cascade Dishwashing Detergent 1958 issue of Lady's Home Journal.  The man in this advertisement is envious of his hostess' spotless drinking glasses.  Rather than giving him advice on how to get his glasses just as clear, she advises him to tell his wife to use Cascade.   The designers of this ad assume that washing dishes is a woman's chore.  The roles are strictly defined; it never crosses the woman's mind that Jean's husband might have something to do with dishwashing in his household. 

1960s Educated women started exhibiting their discontent with the status quo. Armed with diplomas and new sophisticated birth control methods, they demanded for the right to have both career and family. The great social change in the sixties allowed a variety of depictions of women: sex kitten, nurturing mother and independent working girl. 1970s Issues like woman's lib, ethnic heritage, and critiques of capitalism. Women are shown as independent only when inexpensive items or simple decisions were involved Advertisers realized that not just white people were buying products. Ethnic people were placed in advertisements.

1980s independent woman freedom

1990s 2000s She is a "multifaceted success machine”. She is a nurturer and a seducer. She is the twenty-four hour a day woman, and she never sleeps. Men are domesticated. Sex objects

Images of women improving? From June 1999 issue of Glamour Part of outstanding ad campaign that accompanied the Women’s World Cup “You pass on more to your children and your grandchildren than your eye color, . . . You provide the living example that they can become more than they ever thought they could. Because you did. Just do it.”

This ad is striking because it shows a man in what is typically thought of as a woman’s role. What does the fact that he can open the pail “without passing out” say about men? Men are domesticated. Sex objects

What Men and Women Really Think What do the models’ thoughts suggest? What does this say about the roles of women? And of Men? Crutchfield; Catalog for audio and video equipment.

Gender Stereotypes

A woman walked into the kitchen to find her husband stalking around with a fly swatter. she: "What are you doing?" he: "Hunting Flies" she: "Oh. Killing any?“ he: "Yep, 3 males, 2 Females," she: Intrigued, "How can you tell them apart?" he: "3 were on a beer can, 2 were on the phone."

What does this statement mean? What comes to mind Be a Man What does this statement mean? What comes to mind Men never cry Should not show emotion Not quitters Physically brave Independent Heroic and patriotic ideals Adventurous Shaving First day at work - earning a wage Initiations tough Courageous Drinking Physical strength Sex

How has this Changed during the past few years? Masculine Traits Personality Cognitive Physical Competitive Rational Rugged Daring Analytical Muscular Adventurous Problem Solving Phys. Strong Aggressive Quant. Skilled Handsome Courageous Good Reasoning Phys. Vigorous Dominant Mathematical Brawny self promotion & achievement How has this Changed during the past few years?

Why are these cartoons humorous?

“Men are Supposed to be Strong” What message does this ad send to men? Women? Do we usually see more scantily clad men or women? Is this what a man looks like? Should men look like this? Why or why not? Where do our ideals of beauty come from?

What does this phrase mean? What comes to mind? Act like a Lady What does this phrase mean? What comes to mind?

How has this changed in the past few years? Feminine Traits Personality Cognitive Physical Affectionate Imaginative Cute Sympathetic Intuitive Gorgeous Gentle Artistic Beautiful Sensitive Creative Pretty Supportive Expressive Petite Kind Tasteful Sexy focus on others, community How has this changed in the past few years?

Victoria’s Secret is Revealed What does this ad suggest women should look like? Are these women, “Acting like Ladies?” How / Why or why not? The current ideal of female beauty is difficult to achieve. The ideal being a young Caucasian female, height 5'8"- 5'10", weighing 110-120 pounds or less. Make-up, lighting and air-brushing are used to slim down the images even more. Less than 10% of the female population are genetically destined to fit this ideal. Victoria’s Secret, “Angels’ Collection”

Changing beauty standards In 1957, Miss America was 5'7" and weighed 150 pounds. In 2002 Miss America was 5'9 " and weighed 117 pounds Marian McKnight Manning, S.Carolina Katie Harman Gresham, Oregon

Recent advertising trends are just as harmful to men Unforgiving & unrealistic images Men’s magazines encourage obsession with body image, aging & sexual prowess

Healthy Women What does this ad suggest about women? About men? Why aren’t the men drinking the orange juice?

Gender Relations

Generally: Wealth, Power, and Prestige Gender is an important dimension of social inequality Gender stratification frequently takes the form of patriarchy whereby men dominate women Do women in our society have a second class status relative to men? If so How? Politics Economics Education Employment Health Religion Generally: Wealth, Power, and Prestige

Labor Force Participation for U.S. Women and Men, aged 25-55 1950-2000 Women’s increased participation in paid work is a central change in gender relations over the last 50 years. Labor force participation is often seen as the prime indicator (and cause) of changes in women’s status. Social theory often focuses on women’s employment because employment determines their access to resources and their ability to make independent decisions.

Gender Stratification unequal distribution of wealth, power and privilege between men and women In the 1970s it was argued that women are universally subordinate to men in political, economic, and public life I.e cultures everywhere give man, as a category opposed to women, higher social value and moral worth. Is the secondary status of women one of the true cultural universals?

Women’s Power in Global Perspective

Are women universally or always subordinate to men?

How does one measure gender stratification . economic power prestige Autonomy ideology Legal rights How deferential they are expected to be towards men. Freedom to choose marriage partner, profession, and conception. Etc. One has to look at the roles played by women and the value society places on those roles

1. The biological argument Explanations for the Universal subordination of Women 1. The biological argument women's status relative to men is natural and due to biological differences: Men’s testosterone naturally leads them to be more aggressive Women’s oestrogen makes them more compliant Women are biologically programmed to bear and raise children which affects their economic roles Can these differences explain male aggression juvenile delinquency, for violent crime in general the biological basis of warfare the political and economic dominance of men

Biologically men are physically stronger than women therefore this results in a sexual division of labour with men doing the harder work In other words biology influences behaviour implies that the relationship between biology and social life is one of cause and effect. If biology explains the political and economic dominance of men then surely one must simply accept that fact

So much for that theory --- in many societies women are the real labourers biological differences cannot provide a universal basis for social definitions of `man' and `woman'

2. Envy theory men may have political control but women have the power of life - giving birth Men may arrange or exchange legal rights over women's offspring, but the power of creating life and sustaining it by breast milk remains beyond their grasp. i.e. men are envious again linked to biology 3. Psychological boys try to dominate others girls comply with parents again linked with biology

Children's socialization or Gender Typing both sexes must learn behavior that is deemed appropriate to their gender girls from their mother's model a boy with his father.

But so what it is true, generally men are physically stronger than women this may account for some of the division of labour But nothing in the biological differences between the sexes can account for female subordination female subordination is not inherent in biological differences between the sexes what is really important is the different values that are placed on being a man or a woman or on the work that is done An alternative explanation for the secondary status of women must be found

there must be some cultural or sociological regularities that must account for male dominance. the inequalities are due to the fact that societies place different values on biological sex and apparently universally value female sex lower than male sex Which card is ranked higher?

Female is to domestic as male is to public The domestic/public opposition is ultimately derived from woman's role as mother and rearer of children. i.e. identification with the domestic domain is seen as a consequence of their role as mothers has tended to limit them to certain social functions i.e. with the rearing of children

Since women are confined to the domestic context, their main sphere of activity becomes familial relations i.e. women's roles centres around the hearth and home. domestic are those institutions and activities organized around mother-child groups

Men thus become identified with society and the public interest men, however, operate in the political and public domain of social life. they are free to form those broader associations that we call `society' Men thus become identified with society and the public interest The domestic sphere is considered less important than the public domain Since women are associated with the domestic sphere and men the public, women are of lower and men of higher value. Hubert Humphrey and Senator Thomas Carrell at a Democratic National Committee luncheon in Van Nuys, 1968

The Hagen of New Guinea do associate women with the domestic realm and men with the public sphere pursuing socially valued goals is acting like a man pursuing individual family interests is acting like a woman but these types of behaviour are open to both men and women the association of the domestic with something demeaning or less than social is not a feature of Hagen thought.

Is the domestic sphere devalued in our society? in Western society the family and the domestic are conceived in opposition to the public sphere of life, business, work and politics but this cannot be considered universal this domestic/public association it appears is a Western construct. These ideas derived from Western thought has been imposed on other cultural situations where it does is not always apply

Margaret Mead Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935) Male and Female (1949). sought to discover extent temperamental differences between the sexes were culturally determined rather than innate biological Mead found a different pattern of male and female behavior in each of the cultures she studied, all different from gender role expectations in the United States at that time.

The gentle mountain-dwelling Arapesh Arapesh child-rearing responsibilities evenly divided among men and women The fierce cannibalistic Mundugumor a natural hostility exists between all members of the same sex”. Mundugumor fathers and sons, and mothers and daughters were adversaries. The graceful headhunters of Tchambuli, While men were preoccupied with art the women had the real power, controlling fishing and manufacturing

Relativist Position in the non-western world we find cultural ideologies that subordinate and exclude women, extract their labour and child-bearing and rearing and place them under the legal control of their fathers, brothers and husbands ideologies which are supported as vehemently by women as by men. Their religion may consign women to domestic roles and labour to enhance male prestige But women portray themselves in terms of virtue and duty.

men and women, may be equally committed to a system of rules and meanings even though it gives power and advantage to some of them and subordinates others. How legitimately can we step outside this system and view it as an ideology without simply imposing our ideology on them.

In other words even though we can see the injustice of the system which polarize the sexes and demean women It does not mean that women live in these societies with the strain, conflict, or negative self-images one would expect them to entail Women are actors women may themselves become important political actors who influence the public political affairs of men from behind the scenes pursue strategies of controlling labour and prestige within the constraints of the system.