Ancient Civilizations of India and China

Outline: Ancient Civilizations of India and China Indian Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization The Aryans Buddha The Emperor Ashoka Hindu and Buddhist Art The Gupta Empire and Its Aftermath Gupta Literature and Science The Collapse of Gupta Rule Civilization in China The Chou Dynasty Confucianism and Taoism The Unification of China: The Ch'in, Han, and T'ang Dynasties The Arts in Classical China

Timeline: Ancient Civilizations of India and China 3000-1700 BC - Sites occupied at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro  1700-500 – (India) First evidence of the Sanskrit language c. 1600-1100 – (China) Shang Dynasty - System of writing based on picture signs. c. 1000 B.C. - The Vedas committed to writing. Upanishads develop. c. 563 – 483 B.C. - Life of Siddhartha Gautama, who becomes known as the Buddha c. 570 B.C - Lao-Tzu (Taoism) 551 – 479 B.C - Life of Confucius (Confucianism) c. 403-221 B.C. - Period of the Warring States 326 B.C. - Invasion of Alexander the Great 3rd Century B.C. - Tao te ching written 261 B.C. - Emperor Ashoka unifies India, making Buddhism the official state religion. 221-210 B.C. - Ch'in Dynasty 221-210 B.C. - Shih Huang-ti ("First Emperor") conquers all rivals to unify China. 221 B.C. - Construction begins on China's Great Wall 202 B.C..- Han Dynasty / A.D. 480-500 - Invasion of the White Huns / A.D. 618-906 T'ang Dynasty

The Indus Valley People. The earliest culture to develop in the subcontinent of India appeared in the Indus Valley around 3000 B.C. Its people supported themselves by farming, growing grain and rice, and cotton. The two main centers were Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which became large urban settlements with imposing public buildings and elaborate drainage systems. They mass-produced pottery and invented a hieroglyphic script (still undeciphered) which they carved on seal-stones. Around 1700 B.C., their civilization went into decline, in part as the result of the arrival of a new people, the Aryans. Material: limestone Dimensions: 28 cm height, 22 cm width Mohenjo-daro, L 950 Mohenjo-daro, 950 Torso, Mohenjo-daro, third millemium B.C. Early Indus Valley Settlement, 3000 B.C.

The Aryans. The founders of the culture we think of as Indian were the Aryans, a people whose origin is uncertain, and who brought to India two of its most vital aspects: religion-Hinduism, and language-Sanskrit. The Hindu religion, as it developed, acquired a mass of deities and legends, but its basis remained, and remains to this day, the sacred texts of the Vedas, which were first written down around 1000 B.C. Over time, Hinduism evolved into a complex philosophical vision of life, which aims to distinguish between the illusions of everyday life and the ultimate reality. One way to achieve this reality is by yoga, a renunciation of worldly pleasures. Another is by fulfilling the requirements of one's caste, or destiny, and living according to one's duty (karma). Aryan society was divided into castes (social classes) of which the priestly caste was the highest.

The Rigveda is the oldest surviving religious text in world (1500-1000 BC) Rig Veda 1000 B.C

Buddha. At the end of the sixth century B.C., the figure known to posterity as Buddha inspired a new approach to life that emphasized the more austere aspects of Hinduism. Buddhism claimed that human suffering came from indulgence in superficial pleasures. Whereas Hinduism taught that life consisted of an endless series of deaths and reincarnations, according to the Buddha this cycle could be broken by renouncing all worldly ambitions and satisfactions. In this way it was possible to achieve nirvana, the ultimate freedom and release from the ego. The truth came not from external ritual or ceremony, but as a result of personal internal meditation. Thus, while Hinduism encouraged its followers to enjoy the pleasures of life permitted to them by their caste, Buddhism viewed life pessimistically and emphasized the rejection of the world in favor of spiritual redemption. Noble Fourfold Path: Existence is suffering Suffering comes from craving and attachment (desire) There is a cessation of suffering (nirvana) The path to nirvana is eightfold

The Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path

King Ashoka. The spread of Buddhism owed much to Ashoka, the third-century-B.C. Indian ruler, who abandoned his early military campaigns, supposedly horrified at the human suffering they caused, gave up traditional Hindu beliefs, and converted to Buddhism. Under his rule, Buddhism became the predominant religion in India, although, like Buddha himself, Ashoka encouraged religious tolerance. The Lions of Sarnath, Pillar/column c. 242 - 232 B.C memorializes Ashoka’s visit The Pillar at Sarnath In the twentieth year of his reign, Ashoka undertook his second pilgrimage with his daughter and Upagupta. This we learn from his inscriptions. During thispilgrimage he visited the ruins of Vaishali and the places where Buddha used to rest. From Vaishali Ashoka traveled east and came to Ramagrama. He visited the stoopa at Ramagrama built by a king who had collected and preserved the sacred bones of Buddha after his death. Later he also visited Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Shravanti, Gaya and other holy places. Wherever he went he caused pillars and stoopas to be erected in memory of his visit. They remind us even today of the visit of Ashoka to those holy places. There is one such memorial pillar at Sarnath. On the top of a stone pillar about fifty feet high there are beautifully carved figures of four standing lions.

Ashoka's reign strengthened the influence of Buddhism in two important ways: he established a standard edition of Buddhist texts-the Canon-and encouraged Buddhist missionaries to spread the master's teachings outside India. As a result, Buddhism became widespread throughout southeast Asia, most notably in China The Spread of Buddhism See Text, p. 127.

Erotic sculptures of Khajuraho Hindu and Buddhist Art. Most Indian art of the period of Ashoka and his successors was religious in inspiration. Hindu artists depicted their gods, in their various incarnations, as representative of all aspects of life, and Hindu myths often stressed sensual elements: Sexual union served as a symbol of union with the divine. By contrast, Buddhist art aimed to inspire spiritual meditation and a rejection of worldly values. Erotic sculptures of Khajuraho Khajuraho was once the city of temples of the Chandellas, under whose patronage the Jain and Hindu temples were built the tenth to 12th centuries. A distinguishing feature of this style of temple architecture is the high platform on which the temple were constructed The main group of hindu temples reffered to as the 'western group' includes the Lakshmana Temple (ad 954) and the Visvanatha Temple (dated ad 999), the Chitragupta Temple and , the most splendid of them all, the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple. Amongst the Jain group of temples, the Parsvanatha and the Adinatha Temples have sculptured panels of a very high order of artists excellence Why Erotica in Temples? There are different opinions on why temples were decorated with sexually explicit sculptures. One group argues that the old kings lived in obscene luxury and that they used these for excitement. Another group thinks that it was part of sexual education in ancient India: since most people visited temples, it was an appropriate place for mass communication. Some scholars say that since Hinduism believes in the efficacy of all four paths to Moksha (Dharma, Artha, Yoga, and Kama), these sculptures were provided to assist in the last of these four paths. Since these sculptures are limited to the outer walls of the temples, some people interpret them as a symbolic gate to reaching God. It is possible that at the time just preceding the construction of these sculptures, monastic Buddhism was prevalent, people were losing interest in the householder-life, and the temples were built to attract people to sex and family life and to renew Hinduism. The Fasting Buddha, second or third century A.D. Erotic sculptures of Khajuraho, 950 - 1050 A.D.

Hindu art, unlike Buddhist art, shows the human figure curved, voluptuous and filled with potential motion.  Parvati below is shaped and dressed (only in jewelry to emphasize her sexuality and a crown) like the Yakshi.  Ganesha, the elephant-headed god in the center, is corpulent, the result of "good living."  Vishnu on the right is portrayed with a fit, but soft body, and with four arms to show his many powers Standing Parvati, 10th Century AD, India, Tamil Nadu, Tanjore region.  Bronze, 27 3/8" high. "Ganesha," stone figure, 13th Century AD, is the son of Parvati and Shiva, and is considered the provider of success, prosperity and good living.  Ganesha is one of the most popular of the Hindu deities.  Standing Vishnu, 10th Century ce, India, Tamil Nadu, Tanjore region.  Bronze, 33 3/4" high Standing Parvati, 10th Century AD, India, Tamil Nadu, Tanjore region.  Bronze, 27 3/8" high. Ganesha," stone figure, 13th Century AD Standing Vishnu, 10th Century ce, India

Yakshi (female), Yaksha (male) sculptural figures from Northern India Hindu sculpture: Sensuality of gods and goddesses Yakshi (female), Yaksha (male) sculptural figures from Northern India Yakshi are said to be tree spirits with “prana” or inner breath They are fertility figures that have undergone expressive transformation Regarded as one of the finest example of Indian art, this piece has been exhibited at many museums, the world over. The last one was in Summer 1985 at the Festival of India -"Aditi" -   held at the Smithsonian Institution and The National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, Capital of USA, where also this author had the pleasure of viewing this celebrated piece of art with enormous pride. This 5'4" tall statue is carved out of a single piece of stone. It has been dated with certainty to the Asokan period. The prominent breasts, the narrow waist, the creases on the lower abdomen, and broad hips, are classic features of feminine beauty of all ages. They show the painstaking attention to details by the artisan(s). Equally striking is the depiction of clothes with which her body is draped. Elegantly folded and pleated in the front, held in place by exquisite waist ornaments (kamar-bund.). Noteworthy also is the beauty of the ornaments that adorn this female figure from her head to toe. Interestingly, this style of ornaments remain unchanged to this day. The fly whisk (the chauri) seen in her right hand can still be found at wedding ceremonies all over Bihar. Such is the power of tradition in Bihar! Yakshi, 4lh - 3rd century BC

Yakshi , 4lh - 3rd century BC

manifestations of universal power- Hindu Architecture: manifestations of universal power- Brahma – god of creation – underlying basis of reality Shiva - god of destruction and regeneration Vishnu – god who preserves and sustains creation Krishna – god of living creation – incarnation of Vishnu Temple construction 3 inner halls Inner center room-womb room Rigors of daily life falls away Jagadamba Temple at Khajuraho, Northern Style, 5th Century AD The south Indian style of temple architecture is very distinct from that of the rest of India. It is convenient to resolve the types of architecture into four periods corresponding to the principal kingdoms which ruled in southern India down the centuries. Pallava (AD 600-900) Pallava (AD 600-900), Temple Sculpture Southern Style

Hindu Painting flat and decorative Churning of the Sea of Milk Chamba or Mandi, Punjab Hills early 18th century Churning of the Sea of Milk Chamba or Mandi, Punjab Hills early 18th century

Buddhist Art Tradition Buddha achieved extinction in Nirvana: result was that he could not Be legitimately endowed by art with any likeness of a body Large mounds called stupas were erected after his death. Images hinting at presence of Buddha were a. wheel (cyclical nature of existence) b. lotus (spiritual rebirth) c. footprint

Buddhist figurative art: Enabled beginning of veneration and worship of Buddha Seated Buddha image format a. symmetrical posture=harmony, perfection, enlightenment b. Lotus position=discipline, strength c. Moves from Greek influence to more abstract versions d. Frontal and schematic, 3D e. Harmony between Individual and Universe

buddha

Golden Age of Indian Culture The Gupta Empire. After the collapse of Ashoka's empire, India split into a series of local states, until it became united again in A.D. 320 under the rule of Gupta emperors. Hinduism regained its position as the dominating religion in India, and art, literature, and science flourished. The Gupta court became a center of learning and culture, and commerce developed with China and other parts of southeast Asia. Shortly before A.D. 500, the invasion of the White Huns from Central Asia caused the collapse of Gupta power, however, and India once again fragmented into separate local kingdoms. Only with the arrival of Muslim rule-almost a thousand years later did India reunite under a central authority. Golden Age of Indian Culture Sacred Gupta Cave Painting, 4th century A.D.

Early China: The Shang Dynasty. The first organized urban society in China came under the rule of the Shang Dynasty (c.1600-1100 B.C.). Trade and commerce began to develop, a system of writing was invented, and craftsmen achieved a high standard of workmanship in bronze. Spouted ritual wine vessel (guang), Shang dynasty, early Anyang period (ca. 1300– 1050 B.C.), 13th century B.C. Possibly Anyang, Henan Province, China Bronze; W. 13 in. (33 cm) Rogers Fund, 1943 (43.25.4) Spouted ritual wine vessel (guang), Shang dynasty, early Anyang period (ca. 1300– 1050 B.C.), 13th century B.C. Possibly Anyang, Henan Province, China Bronze; W. 13 in. (33 cm)

Hawk-shaped gold hat ornament Eastern Chou Dynasty The Chou Dynasty (c. 1100-221 B.C.). The Chou rulers, who replaced the Shang Dynasty around 1100 B.C., served as the coordinators of a series of regional kingdoms rather than as a central governing authority. In a system that somewhat resembles the feudal system of Medieval Europe, the Chou ruler relied on the support and military resources of the nobles who ruled the local kingdoms. Over time this support fluctuated eventually collapsed: the end of Chou rule is known as the "Period of the Warring States" (403-221 B.C.). Hawk-shaped gold hat ornament Eastern Chou Dynasty (Hsiung-nu) (8th - 3rd century B.C.)

Confucianism and Taoism. The two schools of philosophy that have influenced Chinese culture for much of the past two thousand five hundred years developed around 500 B.C., toward the end of the Chou Dynasty. Confucianism, an essentially optimistic system of belief, argued that those who were naturally virtuous should, while behaving with loyalty and respect, help to govern their country by maintaining their independence and criticizing their rulers if necessary: The government served its citizens, rather than the reverse. Taoism, by contrast, taught that humans should withdraw from culture and society, devoting themselves to meditation and, like water, adapt themselves to natural forces. Fachang Muqi (active 13th century) Portrait of Lao-Tzu Hanging scroll; ink on paper

The Ch'in, Han, and T'ang Dynasties. The disorder of the latter part of Chou rule led finally to the brief Ch'in Dynasty (221-202 B.C.). Shih Huang-ti, the Sh'in leader, forcibly united the warring kingdoms, removed from power the regional noble rulers, and created a centralized state with an imperial army, unified a writing system, and standardized weights and measures. By a policy known as "the Burning of the Books" he eliminated philosophical writings he viewed as dangerous (including Confucian texts). So cruel was his reign that it barely survived his own death in 210 B.C. Great Wall of China, 1400 miles long First construction: Late third century B.C

The succeeding dynasty, that of the Han emperors (202 B.C.-A.D. 221), sought to establish a compromise between central government and local independence. During the first two centuries of their reign, China prospered, the arts flourished, and the philosophical teachings banned under the Ch'in returned to circulation. As their authority began to wane, however, under challenge by the regional states, China once again fell into chaos. Order was only restored under the T'ang Dynasty (A.D. 618-906), which saw an artistic and cultural revival often known as China's Golden Age. Ceramic army – Tomb of Shih Huang-ti Sian, China, late 3rd century B.C.

The Arts in Classical China. Under the Han and T'ang dynasties, China enjoyed a cultural revival. A standard body of literature, the Five Classics, circulated widely. Among the new subjects to inspire writers, painters, and sculptors was Buddhism, which spread throughout China following its introduction in the first century A.D. The most important poet of the T'ang Dynasty -and one of the best-loved of all China's writers-was Li Po. Prancing Horse artist unknown n.d. earthenware with traces of pigment H.42 x W.36-1/2 x D.11-1/2 in. Gift of Ruth and Bruce Dayton 98.19 This spirited horse, a blend of ideal and real in its modeling, captures the spirit of the fabled "celestial horses" of the Han (206 b.c.-a.d. 220). Brought into China from central Asia during the second century b.c., the new breed was larger and stronger and faster than native horses and they rapidly became the image of power and prestige during the Han dynasty. Horse sculptures such as this were an important element in well-furnished aristocratic tombs. Large Han pottery tomb figures, including horses, dogs, pigs, chickens and musicians have been found in numerous cliff burials in Szechwan province. Horses found in these sites frequently display the sharp modeling, open mouth, bulging eyes, clipped mane, knotted tail and long neck of this magnificent example. Prancing Horse, Han Dynasty, second century, A.D. Standing Court Lady, Han Dynasty, eigth century, A.D., ceramic