The Last Invasion on England

991 & 994 Invasion English and Danes lived together for two centuries and eventually combined into one people, the difficulties with Scandinavian invasions were not over. In 991, Olaf Tryggvason, who would soon become king of Norway, led an invasion of England. In 994, Olaf allied himself with Svein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, and struck at London.

Olaf and Svein allowed themselves to be bought off with the payment of the “Danegeld,” an enormous ransom, but soon came back for more.

1014 Eventually, in 1014, Svein became king of England. Later that year he died and his son Cnut became king, eventually ruling England, Denmark, and Norway as well as Schlesweig and Pomerania. Cnut married Emma, the widow of Athelred, the king his father had deposed. Some scholars say that Cnut attempted to become more English than the English, forging a new identity in the Danelaw and throughout the country.

He brought two decades of peace and prosperity to England and appears to have been much loved, but his fathering of two sons, one legitimate with Emma (Harthacanute) and one illegitimate (Harold) led to enormous strife later on. Harthacanute invited his half brother Edward the Confessor back into his household (Edward was the son of Emma and Athelred) and upon Harthacanute’s death, Edward became king of England.

The Last Invasion But the seeds of destruction were sown. Edward was childless. William of Normandy claimed that Edward had promised him the throne of England, but the crown in fact went to Harold Godwinson, the son of the powerful Earl of Wessex. In 1066, William led an invasion of England and decisively defeated Harold at Hastings. This was the last time England was conquered by a foreign power.

The Consequences of Invasion William’s Conquest was accomplished with very few men, and although he ravaged and burned some of the countryside, he did not massacre the inhabitants of England. Rather, he killed or exiled all of the nobles, replacing them with Normans loyal to him.

It is important to note that although the Normans were ethnically Danish (they were “North-men” who had settled in the northwest part of France during the Scandinavian conquests), they were culturally and linguistically French. Thus when William completely replaced the English aristocracy, he did so with French speakers. William also replaced the leaders of the Church (the bishops and archbishops) with Normans who were loyal to him.

Effects on the English Language A. Attitude towards English 1. a matter of social distinction 2. the fate of England at William's death 3. division of England with William's successors and continued foreign influence 4. attitude of indifference for church and nobility 5. ultimate fusion 6. French as language of court; English as language of masses

English and Normandy as one Nation For the next century and a half, England and Normandy were one kingdom. The kings spent half their time in England and the other half in France, and nearly all of the nobles had holdings in both countries. Although English was not spoken at the court, it is likely that some members of the aristocracy learned the language, if only to better manage their estates. Interestingly enough, charters continued to be written in English and Latin, not French (the diplomatic language was Latin, the description of the boundaries of the land was English).

Till 1154 We know that Old English continued to be spoken for some time after the Conquest because, among other evidence, the Anglo- Saxon Chronicle continued to be updated, in Old English, at Peterborough until 1154.

The Katherine Group The famous Katherine Group texts also support the idea that Old English continued to be spoken rather widely after the Conquest. The Katherine Group includes the Lives of three virgin martyr saints (St. Katherine, St. Juliana, and St. Margaret), Hali Mei ∂had (a discussion of the benefits of virginity), and Sawles Warde (a treatise on the care of the soul).

Tolkein These texts are also associated with Ancrene Wisse (a guide for nuns). J.R.R. Tolkien demonstrated that these writings showed the continued use of Old English (the Mercian rather than West Saxon dialect) as a literary language long after the Conquest: Tolkien showed that the language had continued to develop grammatically, making some new distinctions between certain types of verbs.

He also argued that the person or persons who wrote these texts for a community of nuns in the west midlands were educated and knowledgeable, calling into question the traditional idea that Old English had remained only as a language of the uncultured. However, that idea, that English was spoken, but only by the lower classes, and was rarely written, is often used as an explanation for the further development of the language.

The argument goes that because Old English was a completely oral language after the Conquest, it was free to evolve more quickly than it would have been if there was some written standard. There is probably truth in both arguments: Old English was certainly primarily oral in the context of the years between 1066 and 1204, but there were certainly people who could and did write in the language as well.

The loss of Normandy in 1204 A. King John Lackland angers King Phillip of France B. King John loses title as Duke of Normandy

Events of 1204 Despite its widespread use, Old English might still have been replaced by French if it were not for the events of 1204, when King John fell in love with the incredibly beautiful Isabel of Angoulême and married her. Unfortunately, Isabel was already engaged to Hugh of Lusignan, who complained to Philip, King of France (John was King of England and Duke of Normandy). John refused to attend his trial, and so Philip invaded Normandy. From this time on, England and France were politically separated, though the two countries were, of course, intimately involved in each other’s affairs.

Close Connections in England and France In a relatively short time the close connections between England and France were severed. Nobles were forced to choose which of their holdings to retain, and England and France entered into a long period of hostility culminating in the Hundred Years’ War.

French remained as the language of some of the aristocracy, but it is clear from many documents that it was no longer a regularly spoken language. Upper class individuals learned French for their visits to the continent and because it was one of the things that aristocrats needed to know, like heraldry, courtesy, or hunting.

But regular speech in French among the English rather rapidly became rare, and those people who did speak French were almost certainly, at this point, bilingual rather than the monoglot French speakers who had come to England with William.

Repurcussions for aristocrats with landholdings in England and France A. voluntary relinquishment and divisions as two options B. King Louis' decree of 1244 C. consequences: after 1250, nobility of England consider themselves "English"

Continued French influence under Henry III under Peter des Roches Henry III's marriage to Eleanor of Provence death of Henry III's mother

English reaction to foreigners Provisions of Oxford (1258) and Baron's War ( )

The Thirteenth Century A. Shifting emphasis of French and English B. French becomes cultivated tongue: 1. used in law courts and parliaments 2. used by educated and in universities 3. used by polite society as second language C. many French words enter the language during this time

The Fourteenth Century French is in decline because A. Anglo-French is seen as inferior B. the Hundred Year's War C. Rise of the Middle Class 1. the Black Death 2. the Peasant's Revolt 3. rise of the bourgeois class 4. Statute of Pleading the Wycliffite Bible 6. English in schools 7. English as choice in writing

Summary 991 & Events The Last Invasion and its Consequences Effects on English Language English and Normandy as one nation The Katherine Group The Loss of Normandy Close Connection in England & France Thirteen Century Fourteen Century