Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies

Developmental Science The study of constancy and change throughout the lifespan © Blend Images/Shutterstock

The Field of Developmental Science Scientific Applied Interdisciplinary © Irina Magrelo/Shutterstock

Basic Issues in Development Continuous or discontinuous? One course of development or many? Relative influence of nature and nurture?

Basic Issues Nature vs. Nurture Nature Hereditary information Received from parents at conception Nurture Physical and social forces Influences biological and psychological development

Stability and Plasticity Persistence of individual differences Lifelong patterns established by early experiences Plasticity Development is open to lifelong change Change occurs based on influential experiences

Lifespan Perspective Development is lifelong multidimensional and multidirectional highly plastic influenced by multiple, interacting forces © Intellistudies/Shutterstock

Periods of Development Infancy and toddlerhood Prenatal Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood Birth–2 years Early childhood 2–6 years Middle childhood 6–11 years Adolescence 11–18 years Early adulthood 18–40 years Middle adulthood 40–65 years Late adulthood 65 years–death

Major Domains of Development Figure 1.2 Major domains of development Figure 1.2

Influences on Development Multiple, interacting forces: Age-graded History-graded Nonnormative © auremar/Shutterstock

Resilience Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development Factors in resilience: personal characteristics warm parental relationship social support outside family community resources and opportunities © iofoto/Shutterstock

Lifespan View of Development Figure 1.3 The lifespan view of development Figure 1.3

Scientific Beginnings Darwin Theory of evolution Hall, Gesell Normative approach Binet Mental testing movement

Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud and Erikson Emphasis on individual’s unique life history Conflicts between biological drives and social expectations © szefei/Shutterstock

Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Largest portion of the mind Source of biological needs/desires Ego Conscious, rational part of personality Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses in acceptable ways Superego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6 through interactions with caregivers

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital © GWImages/Shutterstock

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust vs. mistrust Birth–1 year Autonomy vs. shame/doubt 1–3 years Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years Industry vs. inferiority 6–11 years Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Middle adulthood Integrity vs. despair Late adulthood

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Social learning theory Classical conditioning Stimulus–response Operant Reinforcers and punishments Social learning theory Social-cognitive approach

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Contributions: behavior modification modeling, observational learning Limitations: narrow view of environmental influences underestimates individual’s active role

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory Children actively construct knowledge by manipulating and exploring their world. Mental structures adapt to better fit with environment. Development moves through four broad stages.

Piaget’s Stages Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational © Odua Images/Shutterstock

Information Processing View of the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system Development as a continuous process Use of rigorous research methods Little insight into creativity or imagination

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Relationship of brain changes to cognitive processing and behavior patterns Brings together researchers from psychology biology neuroscience medicine Practical applications

Ethology Adaptive value and evolutionary history of behavior Acquisition of adaptive behaviors: critical period sensitive period © Nick Biemans/Shutterstock

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Adaptive value of cognitive emotional social competencies as they change with age Person–environment system throughout the lifespan

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Transmission to the next generation of a culture’s values beliefs customs skills Cooperative dialogues between children and more expert members of society © Andresr/Shutterstock

Ecological Systems Theory Figure 1.5 Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory Figure 1.5

Ecological Systems Theory Layers of the environment: microsystem mesosystem exosystem macrosystem Chronosystem: temporal dimension © Zurijeta/Shutterstock

Common Research Methods Systematic observation: Naturalistic observation Structured observation Self-reports: Clinical interview Structured interview, questionnaires, tests Clinical, or case study, method Ethnography

Systematic Observation Naturalistic Observation Observation of behavior in natural contexts Reflects participants’ everyday lives Structured Observation Observation of behavior in laboratory Gives all participants opportunity to display behavior

Self-Reports Clinical Interview Structured Interview Conversational style Probes for participant’s viewpoint Provides large amount of information in brief period Structured Interview All participants are asked the same questions in the same way Permits comparisons and efficient data collection

Clinical/Case Study Method Full picture of individual’s psychological functioning Combines information from interviews observations test scores

Ethnography Participant observation of culture or social group Rich, descriptive insights Does not permit generalization from findings © skyfish/Shutterstock

General Research Designs Correlational Reveals relationships between participants’ characteristics and behavior Does not permit cause-and-effect inferences Experimental Participants randomly assigned to treatment conditions Detects cause-and-effect relationships Findings may not apply in real-world conditions

Experimental Design Independent Variable Dependent Variable Manipulated by experimenter Expected to cause changes in another variable Dependent Variable Measured, but not manipulated, by experimenter Expected to be influenced by independent variable

Random Assignment Unbiased procedure used to assign participants to treatment conditions Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions © iofoto/Shutterstock

Modified Experiments Natural/Quasi-Experiment Field Experiment Compares existing differences in treatment Participant groups matched as much as possible Field Experiment Conducted in natural settings Capitalizes on existing opportunities for random assignment

Developmental Research Designs Longitudinal Same group studied at different times Cross-sectional Different groups studied at the same time Sequential Compares similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (sequences)

Rights of Research Participants Protection from harm Informed consent Privacy Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments © Goodluz/Shutterstock