Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood

Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 10.1 What personality changes take place during Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt? 10.2 Describe the development of self-concept and self- esteem in early childhood. 10.3 Identify changes in understanding and expressing emotion during early childhood, citing factors that influence those changes. 10.4 Describe peer sociability, friendship, and social problem solving in early childhood, along with cultural and parental influences on early peer relations.

Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 10.5 What are the central features of psychoanalytic, social learning, and cognitive-developmental approaches to moral development? 10.6 Describe the development of aggression in early childhood, including family and media influences. 10.7 Discuss biological and environmental influences on preschoolers’ gender-stereotyped beliefs and behavior. 10.8 Describe and evaluate major theories that explain the emergence of gender identity.

Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 10.9 Describe the impact of child-rearing styles on development, and explain why authoritative parenting is effective. 10.10 Discuss the multiple origins of child maltreatment, its consequences for development, and prevention strategies.

Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt Eagerness to try new tasks, join activities with peers Trying out new skills through play Acting out family scenes and highly visible occupations Guilt Overly strict superego, or conscience, leading to too much guilt Related to excessive threats, criticism, punishment from adults

Self-Concept Self-concept is based on observable characteristics: Appearance Possessions Everyday behaviors By age 3½, self-concept includes typical emotions and attitudes. Warm, sensitive parent–child relationship fosters more positive, coherent self-concept. Elaborative reminiscing that focuses on children’s internal states is especially important.

Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling Findings of longitudinal study comparing personal storytelling of Irish-American and Chinese families: Chinese parents emphasized severity of children’s misbehavior and its impact on others. Irish-American parents attributed transgressions to spunk and assertiveness, downplayed seriousness. Differing emphasis in children’s self-image: Chinese children: belonging, obligations to others Irish-American children: autonomy

Self-Esteem Judgments we make about our own worth and feelings associated with those judgments Young children’s self-judgments: Learning things in school Making friends Getting along with parents Treating others kindly Influence of self-esteem on initiative

Emotional Development in Early Childhood Emotional development is supported by gains in representation, language, self-concept. Preschoolers gain in emotional competence: Emotional understanding Emotional self-regulation Self-conscious emotions and empathy Parenting strongly influences preschoolers’ emotional competence.

Cognitive Development and Emotional Understanding As preschoolers age, they are better able to judge causes and consequences of emotions. can infer how others are feeling based on their behavior. come up with effective ways to relieve others’ negative emotions.

Social Experience and Emotional Understanding Parents promote preschoolers’ emotional understanding by labeling and explain emotions. expressing warmth and enthusiasm when conversing with children. engaging in elaborative discussions about causes of emotion.

Emotional Self-Regulation Language contributes to preschoolers’ improved ability to manage the experience and expression of emotion. Effortful control is vital in managing emotions in early childhood: Inhibiting impulses Shifting attention Temperament and parent–child interaction affect development of emotional self-regulation.

Common Fears of Early Childhood Monsters Ghosts Darkness Preschool/child care Animals Phobias (intense fears) in a few children

Self-Conscious Emotions Preschoolers become increasingly sensitive to praise and blame. By age 3, self-conscious emotions are clearly linked to self-evaluation. Parents can promote adaptive levels of pride and shame by focusing on how to improve performance, not on child’s worth. Consequences of shame for adjustment vary across cultures.

Empathy and Sympathy Prosocial, or altruistic, behavior benefits another person with no expected reward for the self. For children with poor emotion regulation, empathy leads to personal distress, not to sympathy. Development of empathy is promoted by sociable, assertive temperament. secure parent–child attachment relationship.

Peer Sociability in Play Nonsocial activity Unoccupied, onlooker behavior or solitary play Parallel play Playing near other children with similar toys, without trying to influence them Associative play Engaging in separate activities, but exchanging toys and comments Cooperative play Working toward a common goal (as in make-believe play).

Cognitive Play Categories Functional play (up to age 2) Simple, repetitive motor movements, with or without objects Constructive play (ages 3 to 6) Creating or constructing something Make-believe play (ages 2 to 6) Acting out everyday and imaginative roles

Follow-Up Research on Peer Sociability Preschoolers often move between types of play. Parallel play often serves as a respite. Type, not amount, of solitary and parallel play changes during early childhood. Only certain types of nonsocial activity are cause for concern: Aimless wandering Hovering near peers Functional play involving immature, repetitive motor action

Cultural Variations in Peer Sociability Cultural variations depend on relative importance cultures place on group harmony vs. individual autonomy. Cultural beliefs about importance of play also affect early peer associations: Village/tribal cultures: interpretive play, reflecting everyday roles and experiences Industrialized/urban cultures: inventive play, generating make-believe scenarios unconstrained by experience

Friendships in Early Childhood In early childhood, a friend is someone “who likes you” and with whom you spend a lot of time playing. Friendship does not yet have an enduring quality based on mutual trust. Preschoolers give more reinforcement to friends— greetings, praise, compliance—and receive more from them. Early childhood friendships offer social support.

Peer Relations and School Readiness Ease of making new friends predicts kindergartners’ cooperative classroom participation and self-directed completion of learning tasks. Socially competent preschoolers exceed less socially skilled peers in academic skills in early school grades. Kindergarten programs that promote social competence have sensitive teachers who provide emotional support. small group sizes. generous teacher–child ratios. developmentally appropriate daily activities.

Social Problem Solving Generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements Achieving outcomes that are acceptable to others and beneficial to the self Crick and Dodge’s model takes an information-processing approach to social problem solving. Identification of children’s processing deficits allows intervention to be tailored to meet individual needs. Social problem solving improves greatly in early childhood. Interventions such as Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) teach children the ingredients of social problem solving.

Information-Processing Model of Social Problem Solving Figure 10.1: An information-processing model of social problem solving Figure 10.1 (Adapted from N. R. Crick & K. A. Dodge, 1994, “A Review and Reformulation of Social Information-Processing Mechanisms in Children’s Social Adjustment,” Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101, Figure 2 [adapted], p. 76. Copyright © 1994 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission of the American Psychological Association.)

Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations Direct influences: Arranging informal peer activities Encouraging child to be a good “host” Offering guidance on how to act toward others Indirect influences: Secure attachment Sensitive, emotionally positive parent–child conversations and play Parent–child play as a model of good interaction

Perspectives on Moral Development Psychoanalytic Freud: Children identify with same-sex parent; obey superego to avoid guilt. Current view: Emphasizes inductive discipline. Social learning Modeling promotes moral behavior. Children internalize prosocial rules. Harsh punishment has negative side effects. Cognitive-developmental Children are active thinkers about social rules. Children make moral judgments based on concepts of justice and fairness.

The Power of Inductive Discipline Induction gives children information about how to behave that they can use in future situations. encourages empathy and sympathetic concern, which motivate prosocial behavior. gives children reasons for changing their behavior, encouraging them to adopt moral standards that make sense. Encourages children to form a script that deters future transgressions.

Modeling Moral Behavior Characteristics of good models of moral behavior: Warmth and responsiveness Competence and power Consistency between assertions and behavior Models are most influential in early years. Later, children internalize prosocial rules.

Effects of Punishment Undesirable side effects of repeated harsh punishment: The punishment itself models aggression. Children react with anger and resentment. Children develop conflict-ridden relationship with punitive parent. Because punitive adults get immediate relief, they are likely to punish more frequently and harshly over time. Use of corporal punishment may transfer to next generation.

Relationship of Parental Corporal Punishment to Externalizing Behavior, by Child Temperament Figure 10.2: Relationship of parental corporal punishment at age 15 months to externalizing behavior, by child temperament Figure 10.2 (From M. K. Mulvaney & C. J. Mebert, 2007, “Parental Corporal Punishment Predicts Behavior Problems in Early Childhood,” Journal of Family Psychology, 21, p. 394. Copyright © 2007 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission of the American Psychological Association.)

Alternatives to Harsh Punishment Effectiveness of occasional punishment is increased by consistency. a warm parent–child relationship. explanations. Alternatives to punishment include time out (removing children from immediate setting). withdrawal of privileges.

Positive Parenting Use transgressions as opportunities to teach. Reduce opportunities for misbehavior. Provide reasons for rules. Arrange for children to participate in family routines and duties. When children are obstinate, try compromising and problem solving. Encourage mature behavior. Be sensitive to children’s physical and emotional resources.

Preschoolers’ Moral Understanding Moral imperatives Protect people’s rights and welfare Violations viewed as more wrong than violations of social conventions Social conventions Customs determined by consensus Examples: table manners, politeness rituals Matters of personal choice Do not violate rights; up to the individual Examples: friends, hairstyle, leisure activities

Types of Proactive and Reactive Aggression Physical Harms others through physical injury or destroying another’s property. Verbal Harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing. Relational Damages another’s peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation.

Sources of Aggression Individual differences: Family: Temperament Gender Family: Harsh, inconsistent discipline Conflict-ridden family atmosphere Social information-processing deficits Media influences: TV and computer game violence

Childhood TV Viewing and Later Aggression Figure 10.4: Relationship of television viewing in childhood and early adolescence to aggressive acts in adolescence and early adulthood Figure 10.4 (Based on Johnson et al., 2002.)

Regulating Screen Media Use Limit TV viewing and computer and tablet use. Avoid using screen media as a reward. Watch TV and view online content with children, helping them understand what they see. Link TV and online content to learning experiences. Model good media practices. Use a warm, rational child-rearing approach.

Treatment for Aggressive Children Goals include breaking the cycle of hostilities between family members. promoting effective ways of relating to others. In Incredible Years, a parent training program based on social learning theory, parents learn techniques for promoting academic, emotional, and social skills. one focus is positive parenting: attention, encouragement, praise for prosocial behaviors. Relieving family stressors and providing families with social supports helps prevent childhood aggression.

Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behaviors From an early age, children view gender in terms of activities and behaviors. Preschoolers associate common objects, occupations, colors, and behaviors with gender. Gender-stereotyped beliefs influence play preferences and personality traits. Gender-stereotyped beliefs strengthen in early childhood as a product of gender stereotyping in the environment. young children’s cognitive limitations.

Influences on Gender Typing Biological: Evolutionary adaptiveness of male and female traits Effects of prenatal hormones Environmental: Family: expectations of sons vs. daughters Teachers: actions that extend gender-role learning Peers: reinforcement for gender-typed play Broader social environment

Children Learn About Gender Through Mother–Child Conversations Mothers often affirm gender stereotypes voiced by children and call attention to gender unnecessarily. To combat stereotypical thinking, parents can refrain from labeling gender unnecessarily. substitute references to individuals or qualified statements for generic expressions. monitor their inclination to affirm children’s stereotypical claims. Discuss gender biases language; ask them to avoid using gender labels.

Mothers’ and Children’s Use of Generic References to Gender During Storybook Conversations Figure 10.5: Mothers’ and children’s use of generic references to gender during storybook conversations Figure 10.5 (From S. A. Gelman, M. G. Taylor, & S. P. Nguyen, “Mother–Child Conversations About Gender,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69[1, Serial No. 275], p. 46. © 2004 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Republished with permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc., conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)

Theories of Gender Identity in Early Childhood Social learning theory Gender-typed behavior leads to gender identity. Cognitive-developmental theory Self-perceptions (gender constancy) come before behavior. Gender schema theory Combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features.

Cognitive Pathways for Gender-Schematic and Gender-Aschematic Children Figure 10.6: Cognitive pathways for gender-schematic and gender-aschematic children Figure 10.6 (Reprinted by permission of Rebecca Bigler.)

Ideas for Reducing Gender Stereotyping In Young Children Delay preschoolers’ exposure to gender stereotyped messages. Model nontraditional gender roles and provide nontraditional alternatives. Ensure that children spend time in mixed- gender activities. Point out exceptions to gender stereotypes.

Child-Rearing Styles Authoritative- see next few slides Authoritarian-low in acceptance, controlling, appear cold and rejecting Permissive-warm, accepting and uninvolved Uninvolved- low acceptance and involvement is emotionally withdrawn and detached

Characteristics of Child-Rearing Styles Acceptance Involvement Control Autonomy Authoritative High Adaptive Appropriate Authoritarian Low Permissive Uninvolved Indifferent

What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective? Warm, involved parents model caring concern and confident, self-controlled behavior. Children are more likely to comply and internalize control that appears fair and reasonable. Authoritative parents convey to children that they are competent, fostering self-esteem and maturity. Supportive aspects of the authoritative style are powerful sources of resilience.

Cultural Variations in Child Rearing Ethnic minority parents often have distinct child-rearing beliefs and practices: Chinese parents are often more controlling. Hispanic, Asian Pacific Island, and Caribbean families combine insistence on respect for parental authority with high parental warmth. Low-SES African-American parents tend to expect immediate obedience, believe that strict parenting fosters self-control and vigilance.

Child Maltreatment Physical abuse: assaults that inflict physical injury Sexual abuse: all forms of sexual exploitation Neglect: failure to meet child’s basic needs for food, clothing, education, supervision Emotional abuse: acts that could cause serious emotional harm

Factors Related to Child Maltreatment Parent characteristics Child factors Family characteristics Community Culture

Impact of a Home Visitation Program with a Cognitive Component on Preventing Child Abuse Figure 10.7: Impact of a home visitation program with a cognitive component on preventing physical abuse of young children Figure 10.7 (Adapted from Bugental et al., 2002.)

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