Chapter 6 Learning

section 1 Section 1—Classical Conditioning  Classical Conditioning is one of the most basic forms of learning: Learning in which a stimulus calls forth a particular response. Learning in which a stimulus calls forth a particular response. Stimulus--anything that produces a reaction, or a response, from a person or an animal.Stimulus--anything that produces a reaction, or a response, from a person or an animal.  A stimulus, which itself may be neutral, is paired with another stimulus so that the appearance of the first stimulus evokes a response to the second stimulus.

section 1 Ivan Pavlov Rings a Bell

section 1 Some Key Terms  Unconditioned Stimulus—a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned.  Unconditioned Response—An automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.  Conditioned Response—A learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral or meaningless.  Conditioned Stimulus—The previously neutral stimulus that has been learned through association to be linked to the unconditioned response so that the mere presence of the conditioned stimulus elicits the response.  In classical conditioning, the conditioned response and the unconditioned response are often similar or identical.

section 1 Key Terms illustrated

section 1 Classical Conditioning  Humans are beset with classical conditioning. Examples? Examples? School bells School bells Gas pumps Gas pumps Laugh tracks Laugh tracks Others? Others?

section 1 Examples of Classical Conditioning  Taste Aversion  Stimuli that produce anxiety  Phobias  Fetishes

section 1 Extinction  Classical Conditioning isn’t permanent and can be extinguished over time.  Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is disconnected from the unconditioned stimulus. Ring bell, but no meat Ring bell, but no meat  Extinction does not wipe away the memory of the prior association. Thus, if the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus start to be paired again, the conditioned response will spring back very quickly. Thus, if the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus start to be paired again, the conditioned response will spring back very quickly. Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery

section 1 Generalization and Discrimination  Generalization is the act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if the stimuli are not identical.  Discrimination—not responding or responding less strongly as the stimulus becomes less and less similar to the conditioned stimulus.  How are both concepts important to survival?  Little Albert Little Albert Little Albert

section 1 Using CC to Combat fear/phobia  Systematic Desensitization—a person is gradually exposed to the harmless stimulus until fear response is extinguished.  Flooding—mass exposure to a stimulus until the fear response goes away.  Counter-conditioning—pairing the feared stimulus with something pleasurable  Bed-Wetting

Classical Conditioning and Popular Culture  8&feature=related 8&feature=related 8&feature=related  How does this experiment demonstrate classical conditioning?  What was the US? The UR? The CS? The CR?

Section 2 Section 2—Operant Conditioning  Operant Conditioning is learning (or modifying behavior) through the use of reinforcements and punishments.  The big name in operant conditioning is B.F. Skinner  “Project Pigeon”

Section 2 Reinforcement  Reinforcements: anything that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again.  Types of reinforcers— Primary reinforcers: Reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of the organism. Organisms value these things naturally. Primary reinforcers: Reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of the organism. Organisms value these things naturally. Food, water, warmth. Food, water, warmth. Secondary reinforcers: reinforcers whose value is learned, usually by being paired with a primary reinforcer. Secondary reinforcers: reinforcers whose value is learned, usually by being paired with a primary reinforcer. Money, attention, social approval.Money, attention, social approval.

Section 2 Positive v. Negative Reinforcers  Positive reinforcers: thing valued by person given to increase behavior.  Negative reinforcers: unpleasant things that are REMOVED as a reward for a desired behavior. NOT punishments. They are rewards. NOT punishments. They are rewards.

Section 2 Punishments  Like reinforcements, punishments can be both positive and negative. Positive punishments: undesirable things given to a person to reduce undesirable behavior Positive punishments: undesirable things given to a person to reduce undesirable behavior Spanking, extra chores, pop quiz. Spanking, extra chores, pop quiz. Negative punishments: desirable things removed to decrease undesirable behavior Negative punishments: desirable things removed to decrease undesirable behavior Grounding, taking away driving privileges. Academic ineligibility.Grounding, taking away driving privileges. Academic ineligibility.

Section 2 Four Possibilities: Something good can begin; something good can end Something bad can start; something bad can end.

Section 2 Problems with Punishments  Punishments alone do not teach alternate acceptable behavior.  Punishments tend to work only when punishment is guaranteed.  Severely punished people sometimes just withdraw  Punishments can create anger and hostility.  May be over generalized, especially if person does not know why they are being punished or what is wanted of them.  Spanking may teach that hitting is an effective way to solve problems.  Punishments may backfire and serve as an attention reward.  Most psychologists believe that it is important to reward good behavior rather than taking it for granted and only punishing bad behavior.

Section 2 Schedules of Reinforcement  How often reinforcement occurs is a major factor in determining how effective a reinforcement will be.  Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing a behavior every time that it occurs. Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing a behavior every time that it occurs Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing a behavior every time that it occurs Learn most quickly with continuous reinforcements. Learn most quickly with continuous reinforcements. Often isn’t practical or possible Often isn’t practical or possible Behavior is extinguished very quickly if the reinforcement is stopped. Behavior is extinguished very quickly if the reinforcement is stopped.  Partial Reinforcement: reinforce only sometimes. Learning takes longer Learning takes longer Behavior is not extinguished as easily. Behavior is not extinguished as easily.

Section 2 Types of Partial Reinforcement  Fixed Interval Schedule: a fixed amount of time must pass before the reinforcement will occur. Leads to a reduction in performance between the intervals, with response rate going up sharply as the scheduled time for reinforcement draws near. Leads to a reduction in performance between the intervals, with response rate going up sharply as the scheduled time for reinforcement draws near.  Variable Interval Schedule: unpredictable amounts of time go by between reinforcements. Response rate is steadier than with fixed-interval schedules. Response rate is steadier than with fixed-interval schedules. Extinction is slower. Extinction is slower.

Section 2 Types of Partial Reinforcement  Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement based on number of times behavior has occurred.  Fixed ratios: Work well if the ratio is reasonably high.  Variable ratio. Maintains a high response rate.

Section 2 Applications of Operant Conditioning  Shaping  A way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction.  This is the basic way in which animal trainers teach animals to do very complex tasks.  Reinforce and establish each piece of the behavior one bit at a time.

Section 2 Programmed Learning  Method of learning devised by B.F. Skinner using Shaping techniques.  Teaching machine: provides students with the subject matter in a series of steps, each of which is called a frame.  Student gets reinforced immediately for a correct answer or correct completion of the task.  Allows students to work at their own pace.  Works well for certain types of learning

The Return of Zimbardo!  6lTo 6lTo 6lTo  From “Discovering Psychology: Learning”  This video reviews the basic concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.  It also provides new examples, like rats that learned to get sick, or pigeons that learn to earn larger reinforcements.

Section 3—Cognitive factors in Learning  Skinner and the other behaviorists were interested in behavior only (stimulus – response).  Cognitive psychologists are interested in WHY people do what they do. They are interested in the thought processes of learning.  Cognitive psychologists see learning as purposeful not mechanical.  They believe that a person can learn something simply by thinking about it or by watching others. They see people as searching, curious beings who learn for reasons other than rewards and punishments.

Latent Learning  Latent learning is a type of learning that occurs without reinforcement. It is information that you simply pick up and retain. This knowledge is called latent learning because it remains latent or hidden until it is needed. This knowledge is called latent learning because it remains latent or hidden until it is needed.  E.C. Tolman studied rats in mazes to examine latent learning. Some rats were trained to run through the maze to reach food (reinforcement). Some rats were trained to run through the maze to reach food (reinforcement). Other rats were permitted to explore the mazes. After 10 days of exploration, food was placed at the far end of the maze. Other rats were permitted to explore the mazes. After 10 days of exploration, food was placed at the far end of the maze. The unrewarded rats reached the food as quickly as the rewarded rats after only one or two reinforced efforts. The unrewarded rats reached the food as quickly as the rewarded rats after only one or two reinforced efforts.

Observational Learning  Observational learning (or social learning theory) occurs when skills and knowledge are acquired by observing and imitating others.  Albert Bandura is one of the founders of observational learning theory.  Observational learning accounts for much of what humans learn. Speaking, eating, playing, and interacting are all learned socially.

Bandura and Bobo  &q=bobo+doll+exp eriment&total=5&start=0&num=10&so=0&t ype=search&plindex= &q=bobo+doll+exp eriment&total=5&start=0&num=10&so=0&t ype=search&plindex= &q=bobo+doll+exp eriment&total=5&start=0&num=10&so=0&t ype=search&plindex=1

Results of the Bobo study  Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways. Imitative aggressions averaged at 38.2 for boys and 12.7 for girls.  Verbal aggression rates were 17 and  Children were influenced more by watching models of the same gender. (104 instances compared to 48.4 for boys and 57.7 compared to 36.3 for girls)

Learning from the Media  Observational learning is often proposed as a cause of violence in society.  In many studies, people who are exposed to violence in the media behave more aggressively than people who are not.  Televised or filmed violent models may demonstrate aggressive skills.  Desensitization may also occur: watching violent acts in the media may decrease the emotional response to real violence.

America and South Africa  From , after the introduction of TV, the homicide rates for the U.S. and Canada rose 93% and 92% respectively.  In South Africa TV was banned and during that same time period the murder rate dropped 7%.  From , after the introduction of TV the homicide rate rose 130%.

Does the Media Teach Violence?  Remember that of all the children who are exposed to media violence, only a few really become violent.  Furthermore, it may be that those who are predisposed to violence choose to watch violent programming, while others do not.  Recall that correlation does not equal causation.