REVIEW OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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What do we call a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience In classical conditioning, a naturally occurring behavior, like an instinct or reflex A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate two previously related stimuli Russian physiologist who was studying the digestive behavior of dogs.

A.Acquisition B.Extinction C.Spontaneous Recovery D.Generalization E.Discrimination F.Higher order conditioning 1. Giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the initial stimulus. 2. Period during which the conditioned response is learned 3. The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. 4. The reduction or disappearance of a conditioned response 5. The creation of a second, weaker conditioned stimulus if the original CS is paired with a second preceding stimulus. 6. The reappearance, after a rest period, of a CR.

a. playing jump rope b. running through a maze to get a food reward c. sweating in hot weather d. clapping after a thrilling concert performance e. getting money as a reward Which of the following is an unconditioned response? In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the taste of food was a(n) a. conditioned response. b. unconditioned response. c. unconditioned stimulus. d. conditioned stimulus. e. neutral stimulus.

In Pavlov's experiments, the dog's salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n) a. conditioned response. b. unconditioned stimulus. c. unconditioned response. d. conditioned stimulus. e. neutral stimulus. A child's learned fear at the sight of a hypodermic needle is a(n) a. conditioned response. b. unconditioned stimulus. c. conditioned stimulus. d. unconditioned response. e. nonconditioned response.

Operant & Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. So, we can use Operant Conditioning to do more impressive and complex TRAINING 8

9 D4 Big Bang 4-6 min

Edward Thorndike Law of Effect: Behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences become more likely; behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. 10

B.F. Skinner One of the most influential leaders in the behaviorist movement. EXTREME in his view that ALL behavior could be explained by environmental sources. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (nice hair, right?)

Reinforcement: Anything that follows a behavior that increases the likelihood that the behavior will continue. Positive: Something good is given (reward)

Negative: Something bad is taken (relief) Both positive and negative reinforcement INCREASE THE LIKLIHOOD THAT THE BEHAVIOR WILL BE REPEATED

Punishment: Anything that follows a behavior that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will continue. Spanking Fines Shame Prison Skinner pointed out that punishment generally teaches the subject how to avoid punishment.

Skinner’s experiments illustrated the power of reinforcement in shaping an animal’s behavior. Word Bank: Shaping “the method of successive approximations” Or. gradual reinforcers guide behavior toward the desired behavior This is how you can get really complex behaviors out of operant conditioning

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber) Basically a rat cage

Other Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food, sleep, water, etc Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. (Recognition, praise, grades)

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers 1.Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. 2.Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. 19 We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

Real life Reinforcers? How do I, or any of your teachers, reinforce your behavior? Is any “negative” behavior reinforced by your teachers? What behaviors of mine (or any of your teachers) do you reinforce? How does that explain the dynamics in your classes?

Schedules of Reinforcement If you wanted to train your dog to sit, how would you do it? It turns out that HOW you give a reinforcement will bring about very different results

Continuous: reinforcement that is given every time the behavior occurs Partial or Intermittent: reinforcing the response only part of the time. What sort of behavior would these produce?

Skinner Pigeon, 4 min

You might deliver the reinforcement at the same time, or you might deliver it randomly Fixed: The reinforcement is always given at same time, every third time, every five minutes Variable: Reinforcement is given at random times Then, you might give the reinforcement after the subject does the behavior a certain number of times, or after a certain amount of time (clock time) Ratio: Reinforcement is given after a certain number of behaviors Interval: Reinforcement is given after a certain amount of time.

If we combine those, we get... Fixed interval: always the same, after a certain amount of time. Like a paycheck Variable interval: reinforcement varies, always being given at random times Like fishing! Fixed Ratio: Always the same, after a certain number of behaviors. Like commission work (you get paid after you sell a certain number of magazines) Variable ratio: randomly given reinforcement, after a certain number of behaviors Like a slot machine These would each have varying degrees of success, and bring about different types of behavior.

Skinner’s ideas on Freedom and Dignity

I feel I HAVE to have dessert every night! This can be a problem for me, but it’s a habit I just can’t seem to break! Classical Conditioning: I feel I have learned to associate finishing dinner with eating something sweet. Also, I have learned to associate the end of the day, my favorite shows coming on, etc. with eating sweets. All of those things trigger cravings in me. Operant conditioning: Eating sweets is self-reinforcing. It tastes good. Also, I have learned to use it as a reward for a long day, or getting my work done, etc. There is also negative reinforcement because the craving is satisfied by eating. Observational Learning: Most people like dessert; we see it everywhere. There are media images of people eating chocolate and having happy lives as a result. Commercials, shows, etc. Overeating and eating sweets is a huge part of our culture.

Cognitive learning Veering sharply from Skinner are ideas about how our mental processes are an important part of learning Latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is need to demonstrate it. Example, cognitive maps mental representation of your environment – Edward Tolman and his maze-learning rats Insight: sudden perception of various parts, and solutions to a problem. Some learning occurs not through exhaustive trial and error, but in thinking about it. Kohler’s monkeys

Observational Learning Learning that occurs by watching a model (someone else) perform the behavior Identified and researched by Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll. (1961)

Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 31 Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: (2004) © 2004 AAAS.

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 32

Any of these would most likely be influenced by observational learning. Child abuse Domestic violence Alcoholism Mental illness Poverty Gang activity

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial models may have prosocial effects. 34

Of course, any of these would probably be influenced by observational learning as well... Altruism Religious observance Education Compassion Honesty

Television and Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. 36 Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

Violence Viewing Effect According to numerous studies, viewing violence increases violence when... the perpetrator is “attractive” the violence is “justified” the violence goes unpunished the violence is realistic the person gets his way the victims pain is not shown All of these lead to a greater likelihood that the violence will be imitated.

Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. 38 Children modeling after pro wrestlers Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works