1. Observational learning Modeling We learn from and examples. Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing others’ experiences and imitation.

2. Observational Learning: Basic Processes Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) – Observational learning – Vicarious conditioning 4 key processes – attention – retention – reproduction – motivation acquisition vs. performance

3. Observational learning The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.

4. Observational learning Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

5. Bandura’s Bobo Doll

6. Observational learning This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression Gentile et al., 2004

7. Bandura on Observational Learning antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have anti- social effects. prosocial (positive) models may have pro- social effects..

8. 8 Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Children modeling after pro wrestlers

9. Figure 6.25 Observational learning

10. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

11. training a family pet operant conditioning concepts of positive and negative reinforcement punishment schedules of reinforcement.

12. 12 Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness (the mind) unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints

13. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition Shaping Extinction Stimulus Control  Generalization  Discrimination

14. 14 The role of Cognition in learning Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms Later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

15. 15 Biological Predispositions of animals in training Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.  a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning Behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.

16. 16 Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).

17. 17 Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

18. 18 Latent Learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

19. 19 Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.