1. Chapter 7 - Learning

2. How Do We Learn Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

3. Defining Learning Learning – a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Implies that learning is flexible. Behaviorist Definition of Learning – a change in behavior. We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

4. Associative Learning Learning to associate one stimulus with another.

5. Associative Learning Learning to associate a response with a consequence.

6. Associative Learning Learning to associate a response with a consequence.

7. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov’s method for explaining certain types of learning.

8. Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (the Unconditioned Stimulus or US) produces salivation (the Unconditioned Response or UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not elicit the salivation.

9. Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus) elicits salivation (now the Conditioned Response.

10. Classical Conditioning The conditioning must elicit a reflexive response. Clip from The Office

12. Acquisition Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus take place. In most case, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. The time between the two stimuli should be about half a second for maximum effect.

13. Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), the CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

14. Spontaneous Recovery After a period of rest, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

15. Stimulus Discrimination Discrimination – is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response.

16. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov considered consciousness and the mind to be unfit for the scientific study of psychology They underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints. Cognitive Process Example Animals learn expectancy and awareness of a stimulus. Biological Constraints Example Different animals have different biological constraints to learning.

17. Biological Predispositions Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but still result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning while other stimuli (sight or sound) may not.

18. Biological Predispositions Even humans can develop classically conditioned nausea.

19. Pavlov’s Legacy Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

20. Applications of Classical Conditioning A drug user is in rehab and wants to quit. If every time the addict desires the drug, they take a pill that makes them feel nausea. The goal is to pair the desire for a drug with the feeling of nausea. This pairing may decrease the desire for the drug.

21. Operant & Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning forms associations between stimuli. Operant Conditioning forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. Classical Conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus. Operant Conditioning involves operant behavior, or a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

22. B.F. Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s experiments operate on the law of effect, which states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

23. Operant Chamber Skinner developed an Operant Chamber, or the Skinner Box, to study operant conditioning. The chamber has a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key records the animal’s response.

24. Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

25. Types of Reinforcers Reinforcement – any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. Positive Reinforcement – add a desirable stimulus. Getting paid to get A’s on your report card. Negative Reinforcement – remove an aversive stimulus. Fasten your car seatbelt to turn off automatic beeping.

26. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer – an innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Answer a question, get a piece of candy. Conditioned Reinforcer – a learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. If a pigeon pecks a button, a light goes on and food is given. The light is the conditioned reinforcer.

27. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers Immediate Reinforcer – a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for pressing on a bar. Delayed Reinforcer – a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of the week. More difficult to maintain motivation How long would you wait?

28. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement – reinforces the desired response each and every time it occurs. Partial Reinforcement – reinforces a response only part of the time. This technique shows slower acquisition, but is more resistant to extinction.

29. Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio Schedule – reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. For every 5 driveways you shovel, I will pay you $50. Variable Ratio Schedule – reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Difficult to extinguish because of unpredictability. Slot machines.

30. Interval Schedules Fixed Interval Schedule – reinforces a response only after a specified time has lapsed. Your boss evaluates you on the last day of each month. Variable Interval Schedule – reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. Principal - Teacher walk-through

31. Schedules of Reinforcement

32. Punishment Punishment – an aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. Type 1 (Positive) Punishment – administer an aversive stimulus. Getting a parking ticket. Type 2 (Negative) Punishment – withdraw a desirable stimulus. Revoked driver’s license.

33. Punishment Although some justification exists for occasional punishment studies have shown that it usually leads to negative effects. Unwanted fears. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. Causes aggression towards the agent. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.

34. Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze.

35. Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation – the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation – the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

36. Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

37. Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcement for correct answers.

38. Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.

39. Operant v. Classical Conditioning

40. Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.

41. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

42. Bandura’s Experiments Bobo Doll Experiment Children in one room watched on a monitor as an adult hit and taunted an inflatable clown. The child was then put in a play room that had the inflatable clown. Children who were exposed to the adult lashing out at the clown were much more likely to lash out themselves. Implications for parenting? Role modeling?

43. Antisocial v. Prosocial Models Antisocial Models Negative, unconstructive, unhelpful behavior. “Bad” TV or video games. Gentile (2004) showed that elementary children exposed to violent TV or video games expressed increased aggression. Prosocial Models Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. Volunteering