Motivation Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move” EDUC 119

Motivation requires: arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal direction to properly focus that behavior persistence to ultimately attain the goal

Types of motivation Motivation (general): – That which prompts, induces or moves one toward action; the process of initiating, sustaining and directing activity

Types of motivation Student motivation: – Willingness to engage in classroom activities and their reasons for doing so

What is motivation? Motivation is a psychological drive that directs a person toward an objective Motives are the “whys” of behavior

What is motivation? Motivation is an internal process that energises, directs and maintains behaviour over time –Energising – what starts you off – gets you going –Direction – determines what you do – choices or interests –Maintenance – ensures activity continues over time

A successful experience…. –Energising – what started you off or got you going? –Direction – what determined the direction/choice? –Maintenance – what ensured you sustained it?

What are some barriers to learning? Consider Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory and list down barriers students can encounter in their learning.

Formal vs informal learning “we learn more effectively, and with greater enjoyment when learning is fundamentally important in our immediate lives” Problem for many with academic tasks there is ‘no felt need’ Biggs & Moore (1993)

Types of Motivation IntrinsicExtrinsic

Intrinsic Curiosity/confidence/satisfaction Engagement End result of activity Engagement End result of activity Rewards/bribes – food/praise/free time/money/points Extrinsic

Intrinsic Motivation Motivated by the value of the task itself Arises from internal factors such as feelings of curiosity, excitement and satisfaction

Extrinsic Motivation Motivated by the (valued) consequences of completing the task Arises from the use of external rewards such as food, praise, free time, money, points, punishment avoidance

Explanations of Motivation Behavioural Effective contingent reinforcement extrinsic Social Learning Theory Goal-directed behaviour Self-efficacy Humanist Basic needs Maslow Cognitive Achievement Motivation (Atkinson) Attribution Theory (Weiner)

1. Behavioural explanations of motivation How would the behaviourist view explain motivation? Motivation as the product of effective contingent reinforcement Use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate task engagement Future motivation influences by response to past behaviour

2. Social learning theory explanations of motivation How would social learning theory be applied to motivation? Goal-directed behaviour closely linked to feelings of self-efficacy Relationship between success and self-efficacy –Attributions –Observation –Persuasion

3. Humanist explanations of motivation Concerned with basic needs Is motivation a basic need? Motivation to achieve the fullest development of capabilities continues through life

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with others, to have friends, & to love and be loved Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic security Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs EXHIBIT 6-1 Physiological Social and Love Esteem Self- Actualization Safety

Maslow’s hypotheses Needs cluster into five sets Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient A satisfied need is not a motivator There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next higher level become most important Self-actualization:Esteem:Social or affiliation:Security:Physiological:

4. Cognitive explanations of motivation Achievement Motivation Attribution – what causes learning? Causes of success and failure?

Achievement motivation High need achievers: Achieving success is a stronger motive than avoiding failure Low need achievers The motive to avoid failure is stronger than the motive to achieve success. – The relationship between persistence and the probability of success is the reverse of that for high-need achievers.

Atkinson and achievement motivation Achievement motivation: The need to strive for success Approach success: Tendency to strive for success by tackling moderately difficult tasks with a high expectation of success Avoid failure: Tendency to avoid tasks because of fear of failure and expectancy of failure

Degree of mismatch & motivation DemandMotivationalConsequence Too little Content of experience all familiar Boring: been there, done that Just right Mixture of familiar and unfamiliar A challenge; motivating Too much Contents all unfamiliar Overwhelming: can’t cope Table 10.2: Biggs & Moore (1993)

Attribution Attribution theory: Explanations of success and failure that influence motivation and behaviour (Bar-Tal, 1978; Weiner, 1972, 1986) Internal (own ability)- external (luck, poor teaching) - locus of control Stability (ability) - instability (mood) Controllable (effort) - uncontrollable (time of day)

Attribution Internal (own ability) External (luck, poor teaching) - locus of control Stability (ability) Instability (mood) Controllable (effort) Uncontrollable (time of day) Think of a success or failure you attribute to each of these. Which was easiest to think of? Which was hardest?

Sociocultural perspectives on motivation: These perspectives interpret motivation through considering dynamic person-task-social context relationships; they consider affect and emotions as well as cognitive influences on motivation. nature nurture

Expectancy value theory States that if anyone is to engage in an activity, they need to expect some valued outcome (Feather, 1982).

Expectancy - value theory So the teachers task becomes twofold: To help students see the value of what they are doing To give them a reasonable expectation of success in achieving it. Motivation Value Expect success

Enhancing the value of the task Extrinsic motivation:  ‘the focus is not the process or product but what the task brings’ Social motivation:  ‘motivated by the opinions of others’ Achievement motivation:  ‘the thrill of victory’ Intrinsic motivation:  ‘the point is travelling rather than arriving’

The FIVE main motivators 1.Interest 2.Control (Choice) 3.Challenge-skill balance 4.Recognition/acceptance 5.Utility Intrinsic Extrinsic Graeme Aitken 8 March, 2007

More attention to social motivation The effects of social motivation on subsequent intrinsic motivation are probably much greater than previously thought. (Biggs & Moore p64) Communities of learners Why then does social motivation seem to figure far less than extrinsic motivation in many teachers’ thinking?

Expecting success: Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) How well that they have done in the past? What they attribute their past experience to? Teacher expectations and how other students think they will perform How difficult they see this particular task (distance from existing similar skill sets)

Concepts for helping students maintain success expectations Sense of efficacy / competence Attribution to internal, controllable causes Incremental concept of ability

Concepts for helping students maintain success expectations Confidence that one has ability (including the specific strategies needed) to succeed on a task if one chooses to invest the necessary effort Sense of efficacy / competence Attribution to internal, controllable causes Incremental concept of ability

Concepts for helping students maintain success expectations Tendency to credit successes to sufficient ability and reasonable effort, and attribute failures to insufficient effort (if applicable), or use of inappropriate strategies Sense of efficacy / competence Attribution to internal, controllable causes Incremental concept of ability

Concepts for helping students maintain success expectations Perception of academic ability as potential developed rather than a fixed capacity Sense of efficacy / competence Attribution to internal, controllable causes Incremental concept of ability

Concepts for helping students maintain success expectations Help students by emphasising: – proximal – specific – challenging Goal setting Goal commitment Performance appraisal Feedback Self-reinforcement

Goal theories of motivation Mastery goal: Achieving mastery of a task or skill – related to intrinsic motivation – associated with persistence and effort. Performance goal: Performing well in an area of achievement – extrinsic – grades. Performance avoid: Completing academic work to avoid appearing incompetent Performance approach: Performing well by outperforming others