1. Motivation
The willingness to expend a certain amount of effort to achieve a particular goal

2. Behavioral Views of Motivation
B. F. Skinner
Programmed Instruction
The student is reinforced for every correct response (the computer applauds!)
This motivates the student to go to the next frame
The student works through the program until the desired terminal behavior is shaped

3. Behavioral Views of Motivation
REINFORCE DESIRED BEHAVIOR
Students are motivated to complete a task by being promised a reward
Praise
Grade
Token to be exchanged for a desired object
the privilege of engaging in a self-selected activity

4. Social Behavioral Theory Albert Bandura
We learn appropriate behavior in a social setting
Observation
Identification
We work for a teacher we respect
Imitation
An older sibling gets good grades, so we try to get good grades also
Vicarious Reinforcement
A classmate is rewarded for a behavior, so we practice the same behavior, hoping for a reward

5. Limitations of Behavioral View
Rewards are extrinsic
Learner engages in an activity to earn a reward that is not inherently related to the activity
Intrinsic Motivation
Learner engages in an activity because it produces inherently positive consequences such as becoming more
knowledgeable
competent
independent

6. Dangers of Extrinsic Motivation
Changes in behavior are likely to be temporary
When the extrinsic reward is obtained, the student reverts to earlier behavior
Students develop a materialistic attitude toward learning
“What tangible reward will I get if I agree to learn this?”
The “Undermining Effect”
rewards undermine intrinsic desire to learn

7. Minimizing the “Undermining Effect”
Avoid indiscriminate use of rewards
Give rewards based upon a predetermined standard of excellence
Give rewards when the task is challenging
First prize at a science fair may cause a student to maintain a strong interest in science
Avoid rewards for activities in which there exists a natural interest

8. Cognitive Views of Motivation
Humans are naturally motivated to learn because they strive for equilibrium
This is achieved by:
Assimilating a new experience by relating it to an existing scheme
Accomodation of an existing scheme if the experience is too different to be assimilated

9. Cognitive Views of Motivation
Adkinson- The “Need for Achievement”
Partly innate - partly based upon experience
Individuals with a High Need for Achievement
have a strong expectation for success
low fear of failure
anticipate the feeling of pride in accomplishment

10. Cognitive Views of Motivation
High Need Achievers
seek moderately challenging tasks that offer a balance between challenge and expected success
Low Need Achievers
avoid challenging tasks because their fear of failure outweighs their expectation of success
choose either easy tasks because the probability of success is high or very difficult tasks because there is no shame in failing

11. Attribution Theory
When asked, learners attribute success or failure to four factors
Lack of Ability “I have a poor head for numbers”
Lack of Effort “I didn’t really study for the test.”
Task Difficulty “That test was too hard”
Luck “I guessed wrong about what to study.”

12. Attribution Theory Luck and Task Difficulty are external attributions
The “locus of control” is outside the learner
Ability is a stable attribution
It tends to stay the same over time
Effort is an internal attribution
The “locus of control” is with the learner
Research indicates that
stable attributes (ability) lead to expectations of future success or failure
internal attributes (effort) lead to pride in achievement

13. Humanistic Views of Motivation
Abraham Maslow
Healthy individuals are motivated to seek fulfilling experiences
Human motivation is based upon need gratification
Maslow identified a five level hierarchy of needs

14. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization maximizing one’s potential.
This is often called the growth need because people constantly strive to satisfy it
Esteem
Belongingness
Love
Safety- nurturance, money
Physiological- food, water, oxygen