1. INTRODUCTION AND MEANING THEORIES TYPES IMPORTANCE WAYS OF MOTIVATING LEARNERS MOTIVATION 1

2. INTRODUCTION Motivation is an important condition for learning and any other activity. Determination and effort in learning requires motivation. Motivation can be understood by: direction or focus of an activity, willingness and predisposition to do or act, and maximum engagement in that activity. 2

3. Meaning Dembo, M (1994) contends that motivation involves cognitive and emotional arousal leading to individual’s internal decision to do or act and one’s engagement in a sustained intellectual and practical effort to achieve certain goals. Motivation includes emotional (interest, enjoyment, desire or attraction), cognitive (choice, decision, judgment or positive belief) and practical (engagement how long, how frequent) aspects. 3

4. Motivated person persist in learning while non- motivated person is just temporarily engaged. Slavin, R (1988) defines motivation as the influence of needs and desire on the intensity and direction of behavior. Needs and desires stimulates action, exert pressure, wish to do more, become more focused on action to meet goals. So, motivation is generally conceived as a process of arousing, initiating, directing, controlling and sustaining oriented behavior to satisfy needs and achieve goals. 4

5. Theories of motivation Motivation needs to be explained by theories because it is: very controversial topic. associated with many concepts. influenced by cognitive, affective and behavioral factors; internal and external. 5

6. One may be confronted by questions such as: What does the person do? Why does he do? How long does the person do? How much is he involved in the action? Is he/she influenced by internal or external factors? 6

7. Theories of motivation So, explanations are given by various theories; 1. Psychoanalytic theories 2. Behavioral theories 3. Social learning theories 4. Cognitive theories and 5. humanistic theories 7

8. Psychoanalytic theories Motivation is influenced by internal unconscious biological instinctual drives. The drives are socialized since childhood through rearing practices; instruction, rewards, punishments, through painful and enjoyable experiences. The individual does not have control over these forces. 8

9. Behavioral theories Motivation is a force external to ourselves. Our actions are influenced by external observable factors that can not be controlled. To motivate is to provide incentives (rewards), to satisfy basic needs or avoid pain. Motivation may not be sustained 9

10. Needs reduction theory Relationship between needs and motivation Needs initiate and strengthen behavior. Needs pressurizes someone to do in order to satisfy them. Motivation is seen as a drive to reduce amount of pressure caused by needs. 10

11. Types of needs according to Murray: status, worthier than others, recognition, aggression, domination, display ability, or competence, avoid weakness/inferiority, avoid defeat, ridicule, embarrassment, control others, do for others, having unique experiences, or do different from others 11

12. Humanistic theory This has been developed by Abraham Maslow, the theory commonly known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Central to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the need for self-actualization, the highest level of needs in the hierarchy. Self-actualization; the need to achieve the highest goal in life based on the use of talents, capabilities and competences. 12

13. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 13

14. 14

15. Achieving self-actualization requires a person to satisfy other basic needs step-by-step. The needs are arranged in hierarchy from the lowest basic level to the highest level. Successfully meeting the needs of the lower level, one is motivated for the needs of the next higher level. Unless these are satisfied one does not have a desire of the higher level. 15

16. Cognitive theories Factors important in motivating students to learn: Individual’s understanding of his past successes and failures Thinking of objectives and goals Belief of ability to accomplish a task Construction and perception of meaning on a particular task Individual’s decision and choice of a task 16

17. Reason of engaging in a particular task Individual’s ability to control his behavior in the process of doing an action Cognitive theory has got sub-theories. These are: Cognitive Dissonance theory Attribution theory Goal theory Self-efficacy theory 17

18. Cognitive dissonance theory: developed by Festinger 1954 (Medway and Cafferty 1990), refers to ‘feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s perceived attribute’(Franzoi;2000:). Inconsistence creates imbalance between what a person believes he is able to do and what he actually does. 18

19. This leads to discomfort which is resolved by justifying the real attribute of a person through action; effort, hardworking and using many strategies. A person’s need to maintain cognitive consistency may cause irrational behavior; frustration, disappointment and lack of interest. Frequent tasks for students’ self assessment are needed. 19

20. Attribution theory: developed by Weiner (Medway and Cafferty; 1990), which refers to assignment of causes to failures and successes. The causes may be attributed to external or internal factors. External factors: difficult task/test/exam, environment, tricky or easy test, confusing instruction or luck Internal factors: abilities, effort, interest 20

21. The cause may be stable (unchangeable) or unstable (changeable) Internal and External locus of control: Internal locus of control: successes and failures are determined by person himself/herself by factors that are controllable. External locus of control: successes and failures are caused by factors external to a person 21

22. Explanation for success and failure The cause may be: Stable or unstable; can it be changed or not? Stable: ability, task difficulty Unstable: luck and effort Controllable: effort Uncontrollable: task difficulty and luck Internal factors: ability, effort, intelligence, skill, lack of preparation, 22

23. External factors: task difficulty, luck, favouratism Goal theory: a person’s goal determines the effort taken to do a task or action. Mastery goal orientation: positive attitude toward the task, self organization of learning, self monitoring, understanding, attempt to relate new learned with previously learned material. Performance goal: memorization, using of rehearsal strategies, uninvolved in critical thinking or problem solving activities, think of the short cuts and quick pay offs. 23

24. Goal setting that influence motivation; Specificity: specific performance standards motivate the students more than general goals. Proximity; Proximal goals influence motivation. Goals that can be immediately obtained than distant goals. Difficulty level; Task that are difficult, that demands more time and more effort are less likely to motivate students than less difficult tasks. 24

25. Self-Efficacy beliefs: an individual evaluation of his/her performance capabilities in accomplishing a particular task. Having confidence and belief that the challenges of a task can be met. It influences the student who has self-efficacy but low ability than the one who is more capable but does not believe in his/her capability (based on Collins’ investigation cited in Reynolds and Gutkin;1990:in A Handbook of School Psychology. Wiley and Sons: New York) 25

26. High self-efficacy beliefs lead to choice of difficult task, expending greater effort in doing a task, persist longer, apply appropriate problem solving strategies on tasks, are less anxious regarding the task and are willing to re-do the tasks when they fail to get right solution. 26

27. Types of motivation Intrinsic and extrinsic Intrinsic: interest, desire to do something by inner gratification and within the activity itself. An intrinsically motivated person will do activities voluntarily. The teacher should: Provide assistance to meet the needs; Assist the child to remove obstacles; 27

28. Promote the child’s will to do an activity; Guide Show the product of work Provide chance for self-evaluation Extrinsic motivation desire and interest to do an activity is built by factors outside the person’s self, either through some conditions, pressure, rewards or avoidance of punishment. 28

29. The teacher must provide positive conditions for learning; Provide incentives; Change styles of teaching; Maximum engagement of students in learning; Provide support Avoid rude behavior 29

30. Importance of motivation Exert maximum effort in learning; Maximum time engaged for learning; Learners can direct and guide their own behavior in learning; Leads to creativity, exploration and innovation; Learners self-assessment; 30

31. Initiate positive behavior in learning; Intensifies learner’s behavior towards learning; Setting goals in learning; Learners can check their progress in learning; Learner’s devise their own strategies in learning; Maximum learning output 31