Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids

Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids
Biology Basics Review! Chemicals of Life II Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids

Section One Inorganic Compounds

Introduction... The chemicals of life make up the protoplasm of an organism. Let’s trace the structure of a large multicellular organism down to the chemical level... An organism is composed of several systems of organs that function (work) together. Organs are composed of tissues. Tissues are composed of cells. Cells are composed of protoplasm.

Protoplasm These are the major compounds that comprise protoplasm:
Lipids Carbohydrates Inorganic Compounds Nucleic Acids Proteins These compounds are composed of many different elements.

The Elements of Life Ca Cu S P Mg O Fe K H Na Cl C N
There are many elements directly of indirectly necessary to all living organisms. These symbols represent only a small number of those used by an organism. Ca Cu S P Mg O Fe K H Na Cl C N

Elements Found In Large Quantities…
Six elements make up about 98% or an organism’s weight. S P O H C N

Remember The Word “SPONCH”…
Sulfur 1% P Phosphorus 1% O Oxygen 63% N Nitrogen 5% C Carbon 19% H Hydrogen 9%

Elements Found In Small Quantities…
Living organisms contain very small quantities of the elements listed below. These elements are called trace elements. Please note: There are many more trace elements than those shown here. Ca Cu Mg Fe K Na Cl

Trace elements make up about 2% of an organism’s weight.
Here are the names of these trace elements: Cu Copper K Potassium Trace elements make up about 2% of an organism’s weight. Ca Calcium Cl Chlorine Mg Magnesium Na Sodium Fe Iron

The Elements of Life Elements combine in many ways to form compounds in living organisms. Organic compounds are those found in living organisms that form hydrogen to carbon bonds. In this section you examine four types of compounds that do not form carbon to hydrogen bonds. They are inorganic compounds.

Examples of Inorganic Compounds…
Type Formula Name Water H20 Salts NaCl Sodium Chloride Acids HCl Hydrochloric Acid Bases NaOH Sodium Hydroxide Water is by far the most plentiful of all the compounds in organisms.

Water Let’s try to determine what percent volume of an organism is water. Approximately what volume of an organism’s body do you think is water? Most of an organism’s volume is taken up by water. Approximately 70%

The Water Molecule Let’s look at a water molecule to understand some of the properties of this important compound. Hydrogen Hydrogen 1P 1P - - - - - 8P 8N - - - - - Oxygen

The Water Molecule Let’s simplify the diagram to explain some of the characteristics of the molecule. There is an angle of 109 degrees between the hydrogen atoms. H H 109° O

The Water Molecule Notice that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms do not share their electrons evenly. This uneven distribution of electrons gives the molecule a slight positive charge on one end and a slight negative charge on the other. Hydrogen Hydrogen 1P 1P - - - - - 8P 8N - - - - - Oxygen

Try This Question: + - H H H H A B O O - + Answer: A
Which picture, A or B, correctly shows the charge on the water molecule? + - H H H H A B O O - + Answer: A

The Polar Molecule + - + -
Because the water molecule has a separation of charges, it is called a polar molecule. Let’s turn, move and simplify the water molecule to show another characteristic. What effect do you suppose these polar molecules have on each other? They _____________. + - + - attract

Hydrogen Bonding This attraction forms a weak hydrogen bond between the water molecules. Hydrogen bonding makes water the best solvent in nature. Let’s see why water is such a good solvent by observing what happens to a salt as it dissolves. + - + -

Adding Salt To Water… Sodium chloride (table salt) dissociates (separates into its parts) to form ions. The salt then dissolves in the water. NaCl  Na Cl- The ions are kept in solution by the action of water molecules.

Adding Salt To Water… - + + - Cl- + - Na+ - - + + - + - + + -
Polar water molecules form structures around the ions. Notice that the water molecules position themselves in a certain manner. These structures are called hydration shells. - + + - Cl- + - Na+ - - + + - + - + + -

Hydration Shells Hydration shells keep the ions in solution.
The ions are now capable of forming new combinations (inorganic salts) when other ions are added. Watch as potassium and iodide ions are added to water. Potassium and iodide ions also have hydration shells that keep them in solution.

Potassium & Iodide Ions
Let’s see the possible combinations that can be created by using sodium, potassium, chloride and iodide ions. - + + - I- + - - - + + - K+ + - + + -

Study The Table Below… Sodium = Na Iodide = I
Potassium Chloride NaCl KCl Iodide NaI KI Sodium = Na Iodide = I Potassium = K Chloride = Cl

Use of Inorganic Compounds
Ions of inorganic compounds play a vital role in several cell processes such as nerve action and osmosis. They are also found as components of more complex compounds such as chlorophyll in leaf cells and hemoglobin in red blood cells. Plant Cell Red Blood Cells

Acids Acids and bases are important substances that affect many cell functions. Let’s first examine acids. Hydrochloric Acid = HCl Nitric Acid = HNO3 Carbonic Acid = H2CO3 Acids dissociate to form ions when dissolved in water. Hydrochloric Acid  H+ Cl- Nitric Acid  H+ NO3- Carbonic Acid  H+ H+ CO3— What ion is present when acids dissociate? Answer: H+

Acids When acids dissociate in water, there are many hydrogen (H+) ions released. Solutions containing hydrogen ions are acidic. The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions, the stronger the acid.

Bases Answer: OH- Sodium hydroxide = NaOH Potassium hydroxide = KOH
Ammonium hydroxide = NH4OH Bases dissociate to form ions when dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide  Na+ OH- Potassium hydroxide  K+ OH- Ammonium hydroxide  NH4+ OH- What ion is always present when bases dissociate? Answer: OH-

Bases When inorganic bases dissociate in water, there are many hydroxide (OH-) ions released. Solutions containing hydroxide ions are basic or alkaline. The greater the concentration of hydroxide ions, the more basic the solution.

pH Scale Scientists use the pH scale to indicate the concentration of H+ or OH- ions in a solution. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic. Acids with a pH less than 3 are strong acids. They have high concentrations of H+ ions. Acids with a pH greater than 4 are weak acids. They have lower hydrogen ion concentrations. Moderate acids are those with a pH of 3 to 4. Water Acids Bases 7 14

pH Scale Scientists use the pH scale to indicate the concentration of H+ or OH- ions in a solution. Water dissociates slightly to produce equal and low concentrations of H+ and OH- ions. Water is neutral (neither acidic nor basic), and has a pH of 7. Water Acids Bases 7 14

pH Scale Scientists use the pH scale to indicate the concentration of H+ or OH- ions in a solution. Solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Bases with a pH greater than 11 are strong bases. They have a high hydroxide ion concentration. Bases with a pH less than 10 are weak bases. They have a low hydroxide ion concentration. Moderate bases are those with a pH of 10 to 11. Water Acids Bases 7 14

Try These Questions… What number indicates a moderate acid? _____
What number indicates a moderate base? _____ 3-4 10-11

Review… Protoplasm is comprised of many elements.
Sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen are elements that are found in large quantities in living organisms. Trace elements are found in only very small quantities in living organisms. Water, inorganic salts, inorganic acids and inorganic bases make up a group called inorganic compounds.

Review… Polar water molecules form hydration shells around ions in solution. Acids dissociate in water to produce a high hydrogen ion concentration. Bases dissociate in water to produce a high hydroxide ion concentration. The pH scale is used to indicate the strength of acids and bases.

Try These Questions: A. hydrogen D. hydroxide B. salt E. base
Select the letter of the correct answer from the list below: A. hydrogen D. hydroxide B. salt E. base C. pH scale F. water The solvent ___________ forms hydration shells around ions in solution. An ion always found in dissociated acids is _____________. A dissolved ____________ has an excess of hydroxide ions. The strength of an acid or a base is indicated on the ______________.

Answers: water hydrogen base pH scale
The solvent ___________ forms hydration shells around ions in solution. An ion always found in dissociated acids is ______________. A dissolved ____________ has an excess of hydroxide ions. The strength of an acid or a base is indicated on the ______________. hydrogen base pH scale

Section Two Organic Compounds

Which Element Is It? CARBON!
There is one element that is most responsible for life as we know it… CARBON! That element is…

Information Organic compounds are the chemicals found in living organisms that contain hydrogen to carbon bonds. These are the major organic compounds that comprise living organisms: Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids Some organisms have the ability to manufacture organic compounds. Other organisms must obtain organic compounds by eating other living organisms.

Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs
Autotrophic organisms produce their own food (organic compounds). For example, algae produces food during the process of photosynthesis. Heterotrophic organisms, such as fish and people, cannot manufacture their own food. They consume other living organisms in order to provide material for energy, growth and repair. The organic compounds found in food cannot be used in the form that they are eaten.

Food Molecules Protein Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)
Lipids (fats and oils) Nucleic Acid Most food molecules are so large that they cannot be absorbed into the heterotroph’s body.

They must be: _____________
Question: What must happen to the food molecules before they can be absorbed? They must be: _____________ DIGESTED! Let’s examine how this takes place by conducting an experiment…

The Experiment… When you eat, the first digestive substance that food comes in contact with is saliva. Let’s examine the action of saliva on starch. First, let’s mix the flour in distilled water and test for the presence of starch with an indicator… The mixture will turn BLACK! There is no color change when you combine just the indicator and distilled water – this lets us know that the distilled water did not cause the color change.

The Experiment… Let’s see if saliva affects starch by adding it to the test tube containing the flour water mixture and waiting two minutes. After two minutes, let’s test the mixture with the indicator. The indicator causes no color change, so we know that there is no longer any starch in the test tube.

Information Further tests prove that the starch (a large carbohydrate) is chemically broken down to maltose (a smaller carbohydrate). Saliva contains a special substance called amylase. Amylase is one of several enzymes that are found in the body. Enzymes are substances that regulate chemical reactions.

Digestion Let’s see how organisms use enzymes to digest food molecules. + Water (Soluble End Products of Digestion) Digestion involves a process called hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis Hydrolysis is the breaking down of large molecules by chemically combining them with water. Water as well as the enzyme is necessary for each step in the process of hydrolysis. + Water (Soluble End Products of Digestion)

Information These are the small, soluble molecules produced during hydrolysis: Monosaccharides from carbohydrates (starches and sugars) Amino acids from proteins Fatty acids and glycerol from lipids (fats and oils) Nucleotides from nucleic acids. When hydrolysis is complete, the organism absorbs and transports these soluble end products to the cells of the body.

Review… During hydrolysis, molecules that are insoluble (do not dissolve) break down to form molecules that are soluble (do dissolve). Enzymes regulate hydrolysis. Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food. Heterotrophs are organisms that consume (eat) food in the form of other living organisms.

Select The Best Matching Choice:
Hydrolysis: Correct Answer: B Answer Column: Dissolves Breaks down molecules Tests for starch pH scale Regulates hydrolysis Does not dissolve Eats other organisms Makes its own food Enzyme: Correct Answer: E Autotroph: Correct Answer: H Heterotroph: Correct Answer: G Insoluble: Correct Answer: F Soluble: Correct Answer: A

Soluble End Products These are the soluble organic end products absorbed by the cell: Monosaccharides Amino acids Fatty acids Glycerol Nucleotides Once in the cell, these soluble products can be used to synthesize (make) large organic compounds needed by the cell. Let’s see how this is done…

Dehydration Synthesis
- Water (Soluble End Products of Digestion) (Insoluble End Product) This process is called dehydration synthesis. Water is removed during the synthesis (building) of the end product.

Information These are the dehydration synthesis end products:
Carbohydrates from monosaccharides Proteins from amino acids Lipids from fatty acids and glycerol Nucleic acids from nucleotides. The cell uses these end products for growth, repair, energy and heredity. Let’s examine the use of each end product…

Dehydration Synthesis End Products...
Function (Use) Carbohydrate Heat and energy Proteins Growth, repair, maintenance and energy Lipids Heat, energy and insulation Nucleic Acids Heredity

Questions… Which organic compound provides a link between generations? _______________ Which organic compound allows for the replacement of damaged tissues? ___________ Nucleic Acids Proteins

Review… Hydrolysis is the step-by-step process in which complex molecules are broken down. Water combines with the complex molecules during the process of hydrolysis. Dehydration synthesis is the step-by-step building of complex molecules from simpler molecules. Water is produced during each step of dehydration synthesis. Enzymes are required for the processes of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.

Try These Questions: A. hydration D. protein B. enzyme E. dehydration
Select the letter of the correct answer from the list below: A. hydration D. protein B. enzyme E. dehydration C. hydrolysis F. water The process by which large molecules are broken down is ________________. The process by which large molecules are built is _______________ synthesis. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis require a(n) ____________ to be present. In hydrolysis, _____________ combines with large molecules to break them down.

Answers: hydrolysis dehydration enzyme water
The process by which large molecules are broken down is ________________. The process by which large molecules are built is _______________ synthesis. Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis require a(n) ____________ to be present. In hydrolysis, _____________ combines with large molecules to break them down. dehydration enzyme water

Section Three Carbohydrates

A Question… What happens to hydrolyzed carbohydrates in the cell?
Flour Candy What happens to hydrolyzed carbohydrates in the cell? How are carbohydrates used by living organisms for heat and energy?

A Question… Flour Candy In order to answer these important questions, the structure of monosaccharide (simple sugar) molecules must first be examined.

Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the end products of carbohydrate hydrolysis. The arrangement of atoms in space is shown by using structural formulas such as these. Any line between symbols (letters) indicates the presence of a chemical bond. The thick lines represent bonds that are close.

Glucose, Fructose & Galactose
All three of these monosaccharides contain the following elements: Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen. All three contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms. Glucose, fructose & galactose all have the same molecular formula: C6H12O6. However, their structural formulas are entirely different.

Molecular vs. Structural Formulas
Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas, are called isomers. Glucose and fructose are more frequently used by the cell than galactose. Let’s examine them closely to see how they are used by the cell.

Glucose Uses of glucose by the cell:
Energy for heat. Energy for chemical changes. Stored reserves of energy. Glucose releases heat energy when its chemical bonds are broken. Glucose also provides energy to convert ADP (adenosine diphosphate) into ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is the compound directly responsible for providing the chemical energy for most cell activities.

Question… stores Think about this question:
If the cell does not require glucose for immediate use it ____________ it. stores Let’s examine what cells do to glucose in order to store it…

Maltose Two monosaccharide glucose molecules react to produce a disaccharide maltose molecule in the presence of an enzyme. Note: Mono means single; Di means double, and Saccharide means sugar.

Maltose & Sucrose Water is produced when the two glucose molecules combine to form maltose. Dehydration synthesis is the name of the process in which large molecules and water are produced from small molecules in the presence of an enzyme. The monosaccharides glucose and fructose react in the presence of an enzyme to form the disaccharide sucrose. Additionally, water is produced when the glucose and fructose molecules combine. Sucrose is the table sugar that you use as food.

Maltose & Sucrose Sucrose and maltose undergo further dehydration synthesis to form storage compounds. Plant and animal cells create long, chain-like compounds called polysaccharides to store sugar for long periods of time. (Poly means many.) The polysaccharide starch is also a polymer. Polymers are long chains of identical subunits.

Storage Compounds Plant starch is called amylose when it is composed of several hundred glucose subunits in a straight chain. Plant starch is called amylopectin when it contains over a thousand glucose subunits in a branched chain. Amylose and amylopectin are storage compounds. In humans, excess sugar is converted to the storage compound glycogen. Glycogen does not have a straight chain.

Cellulose Cellulose is another important polysaccharide.
The glucose subunits in cellulose have alternating orientations. That is, every other subunit points in the opposite direction. Cellulose is the main structural material in plants. Wood, paper and cotton are almost entirely cellulose. Cellulose is the most plentiful organic molecule. Cellulose

Glucose: Correct Answer: A Answer Column: Monosaccharide Galactose + glucose Glucose + fructose Contains no glucose Structural material Glucose + glucose Animal starch Plant starch Amylopectin: Correct Answer: H Cellulose: Correct Answer: E Sucrose: Correct Answer: C Maltose: Correct Answer: F Glycogen: Correct Answer: G

Information When an organism uses up its monosaccharides it must do this: Eat to receive more monosaccharides (as do animals, fungus and bacteria). Produce more monosaccharides (as do photosynthetic plants). Convert stored polysaccharides to monosaccharides. The process by which organisms break down large molecules and release water is called hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis Starch is chemically combined with water in the presence of an enzyme to form glucose molecules. Glucose would now be available to the organism for energy.

Molecular Formulas Monosaccharides Glucose C6H12O6 Fructose C6H12O6
Examine the molecular formulas of these carbohydrates… Monosaccharides Glucose C6H12O6 Fructose C6H12O6 Galactose C6H12O6 Disaccharides Maltose C12H22O11 Sucrose C12H22O11 What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in these carbohydrates? 2 to ______ 1 The ratio of two hydrogens to each oxygen is true for every carbohydrate.

Review… Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) are single sugars. Disaccharides (maltose and sucrose) are double sugars. Carbohydrates can be stored as starch for energy reserves. Polysaccharides (the starches amylose, amylopectin and glycogen, as well as cellulose) are composed of many glucose subunits. A polymer is a long chain of identical chemical subunits.

Try These Questions: A. glucose D. galactose B. polymer E. cellulose
Select the letter of the correct answer from the list below: A. glucose D. galactose B. polymer E. cellulose C. double F. single Glucose is a monosaccharide, which is another name for a ___________ sugar. Maltose is a disaccharide, which is another name for a ____________ sugar. Starch is a polysaccharide that is composed of many ____________ subunits. A ____________ is any long chain chemical with repeated identical subunits.

Answers: single double glucose polymer
Glucose is a monosaccharide, which is another name for a ___________ sugar. Maltose is a disaccharide, which is another name for a ____________ sugar. Starch is a polysaccharide that is composed of many ____________ subunits. A ____________ is any long chain chemical with repeated identical subunits. double glucose polymer

Section Four Lipids

Questions… What does an organism do with the excess carbohydrates that it makes or eats? How does an organism use the lipids (fats and oils) that it makes or eats? In order to answer these very important questions, we must examine the structure of lipid molecules.

Lipids The structure of the lipid molecule is more complex than anything you have seen in this PowerPoint.

Lipids When an organism eats a lipid, it is broken down so that it can be absorbed. Hydrolysis is the name of the process by which a complex molecule is broken down into simpler parts. Complex molecules must undergo hydrolysis in order to be absorbed. Let’s examine how this is accomplished…

Lipid Hydrolysis Note the three water molecules that are present.
Glycerol and three fatty acids are produced. They can be absorbed into the body or the cell. If the cell needs energy, it can use these molecules.

Fatty Acids & Glycerol The glycerol and the fatty acids can be used for energy or stored for future use. These molecules can be recombined by the cell to form lipids. Glycerol is an alcohol because it contains a hydroxyl group. Glycerol contains three hydroxyl groups that will react with the fatty acids. Fatty acid is an organic acid because it contains a carboxyl group. The dehydration synthesis reaction takes place between the carboxyl and the hydroxyl groups. Glycerol Fatty Acid

Dehydration Synthesis
THREE dehydration synthesis reactions are necessary to produce one lipid molecule from fatty acids and glycerol.

Carbohydrate vs. Lipid Molecules
Lipids are insoluble in water and are used for long term energy storage. Glucose is soluble in water and can be quickly used for energy. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is much higher in lipids than in carbohydrates. This affects the amount of energy released when an organism uses these compounds. A lipid yields 9 calories/gram when oxidized while a carbohydrate (or a protein) yields only 4 calories/gram. Some organisms can convert lipids to glucose, or glucose to lipids, by a complex chemical process.

Information Lipids are either fats (solids at room temperature) or oils (liquids at room temperature). Fats are found in milk, milk products, and fatty meats. Oils are found in fish, vegetables and seeds. Animals store lipids in adipose cells beneath the skin. Adipose tissue is used for long-term energy storage and also provides insulation. Lipids can also be used for the production of hormones, lubricants, and emulsifiers.

Types of Fat The type of fat that we consume, as part of our diet, can have very important consequences. There are two basic types of fat: Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat Saturated fats have single bonds between the carbon atoms in the molecule. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some carbon atoms in the molecule.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated
Saturated Fat – notice the single bonds throughout. Unsaturated Fat – notice the double bonds highlighted in orange.

Saturated Cholesterol
It is believed that when large quantities of saturated fat are consumed, the production of cholesterol in the body increases. Cholesterol lines the interior of arteries and can cause atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries can cause heart attacks.

Review Facts about lipids: Insoluble in water
Used for stored energy and insulation Produce glycerol and fatty acid during hydrolysis Formed by the dehydration synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids Fats are solid at room temperature Oils are liquid at room temperature

Fatty Acid: Correct Answer: C Answer Column: Atherosclerosis Three hydroxyl groups One carboxyl group Three carboxyl groups Saturated fat One hydroxyl group Unsaturated fat Lipid in water Glycerol: Correct Answer: B Insoluble: Correct Answer: H Single Bonds: Correct Answer: E Cholesterol: Correct Answer: A Double Bonds: Correct Answer: G

Testing Your Knowledge
Section Five Testing Your Knowledge

This Is A Test of What You Have Learned…
There are 10 questions on this test. Try to correctly answer all of the questions. If you miss a question, watch the screen for an explanation of the correct answer.

Answer Column: Very small quantities Fatty acid 2:1 ratio (H to O) Glycerol Lipid Very large quantities Identical subunits Water Trace element: Correct Answer: A A trace element is one that is found in very small quantities. Some trace elements found in living things are iron, copper, magnesium and calcium. Polar molecule: Correct Answer: H A polar molecule is one that has a separation of positive and negative charges. Water is a polar molecule that surrounds ions in solution because of its polar nature.

Answer Column: Very small quantities Fatty acid 2:1 ratio (H to O) Glycerol Lipid Very large quantities Identical subunits Water Polymer: Correct Answer: G A polymer is a long chain containing identical subunits. A good example of a polymer is amylose. This plant starch is composed of several hundred glucose subunits in a straight chain. Carbohydrate: Correct Answer: C All carbohydrates have a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms. This makes it easy to identify any substance that does not have the 2:1 ratio, as not being a carbohydrate.

Select The Best Choice To Complete Each Analogy:
The hydrogen ion is to an acid as the __________ ion is to a base. A. chloride B. carboxyl C. hydroxide D. methyl E. glycerol hydroxide Since an acid placed in a solution releases hydrogen ions the best answer is the hydroxide. It is released by a base when placed in a solution.

Select The Best Choice To Complete Each Analogy:
Polysaccharides are to monosaccharides as ____________ are to glycerol and fatty acids. A. polymers B. nucleic acids C. proteins D. amino acids E. lipids lipids Since polysaccharides are the end products of monosaccharide dehydration synthesis, the best answer is lipids. They are the end products of glycerol and fatty acid dehydration synthesis.

Fill In The Blanks… carbohydrates glucose isomer carbon
Starches and sugars are examples of ______________. Another member of this group is cellulose. It is a polymer of the monosaccharide _____________. This simple sugar is a(n) _______________ of galactose and fructose because they have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas. They, as do all organic compounds, contain the element ___________, the substance most responsible for life as we know it. glucose isomer carbon

~Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids~
Biology Basics Review! You Have Completed... Chemicals of Life II ~Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids~

Water, Carbohydrates and Lipids

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