EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
3000 YEARS OF EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

KEMET Ancient Egyptians called their land "Kemet," which meant "black," after the black fertile soil left behind each year with the annual flooding of the Nile.. The most prevalent color of the desert, is a decidedly reddish-yellow ochre. The Egyptians called the desert ”Deshret," meaning "red," and this endless carpet of sand covers an estimated 95 % of Egypt, interrupted only by the narrow band of green carved by the waters of the Nile.

PRE-DYNASTIC EGYPT Neolithic Period: 6000-3100 bce
Slow development of civilization from bce Introspective character: sense of cultural superiority Awareness of cyclical pattern supported by annual flooding of the Nile and knowledge of the sun’s revolutions Concentration of population on Nile banks led to development of agricultural villages Writing began to be developed ca bce Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was inhabited by hunters over 250,000 years ago when the region was a green grassland. The Palaeolithic period around 25,000BC brought climatic changes which turned Egypt into a desert. The inhabitants survived by hunting and fishing and through a primitive form of cultivation. Desertification of Egypt was halted by rains which allowed communities of cultivators to settle in Middle Egypt and the Nile Delta. These farmers grew wheat, flax and wove linen fabrics in addition to tending flocks. The first indigenous civilizations in Egypt have been identified in the south of the country through archaeological excavations. The Badarian culture is the earliest known developed Egyptian civilization based on farming, hunting and mining. Badarians produced fine pottery and carved objects as well as acquiring turquoise and wood through trading. The Naqada lived in larger settlements about 4,000BC and produced decorated pottery and figurines made from clay and ivory which indicate they were a war-like people. Naqada artefacts from 3,300BC show further development both in terms of culture and technology. Evidence of irrigation systems and more advanced burial sites, as well as the use of alien materials like lapis lazuli, indicate a cultural diversity and the development of external trading. Throughout most of its pre-dynastic history Egypt encompassed a multiplicity of settlements which gradually became small tribal kingdoms. These kingdoms evolved into two loosely confederated states: one encompassed the Nile valley up to the Delta (with the Naqada dominating) with Hierakonpolis as capital, represented by the deities Seth and White Crown; the other encompassed the Delta, with Buto as its capital and represented by the deities Horus and Red Crown.

Lower Egypt Upper Egypt Kush Nile Delta swamp oasis island
This is a map of ancient Egypt. Lower Egypt is in the north. Upper Egypt is in the south. The Fayum is a swampy area. Siwa is an oasis. Elephantine is an island in the Nile, near modern Aswan. Heliopolis is within the city of modern Cairo. Thebes (There is also a Thebes in Greece) is at modern Luxor. Upper Egypt island Kush

Palermo Stone Old Kingdom Annals: earliest Egyptian historical writing: 25th c. bce A dark stone containing information from the early dynasties. It is inscribed on both sides with a list of kings from Pre- Dynastic Egypt to the middle of the 5th Dynasty. The exact creation date is not known, the earliest possible date being the middle of the 5th Dynasty. A fragment of diorite or another dark stone containing information from the early dynasties. The largest piece of the stone is now on display at Palermo, hence its name. A second piece is in the Cairo Museum and an even smaller section is in the University College of London. The original is believed to have been approximately 2.2 meters long, meters high and 6.5 cm thick. It is inscribed on both sides with a list of kings from Pre-Dynastic Egypt to the middle of the 5th Dynasty. From the 4th Dynasty on, the list also contains the foundations and offerings made by the kings. It is thus highly valuable in the study of the foundation of Ancient Egypt. The exact creation date is not known, the earliest possible date being the middle of the 5th Dynasty.

MANETHO Manetho, a Greek-speaking Egyptian priest, wrote the Ægyptiaca, a collection of three books about the history of Ancient Egypt, commissioned by Ptolemy II in the 3rd c. bce. As a temple priest, Manetho had access to the archives which contained a vast number of different kinds of writings from mythological texts to official records, from magical formulas to scientific treaties. With such sources, myths and folk-tale are mixed with the facts of the Egyptian history. Manetho divided Ancient Egyptian history in 30 dynasties, a division not always based on historical facts, but partly on mythology and partly on divisions of ruling families already established in the past. Despite Manetho's importance for the study of the history of Ancient Egypt, nothing much is really known about the man himself. Even the exact meaning of his name has been a point of discussion among Egyptologists and although it is now generally agreed upon that the name "Manetho" comes from the Ancient Egyptian mniw-htr, which means "keeper of the horses", the existence of such a name is not attested by Ancient Egyptian sources. Manetho lived in Sebennytos, the capital of Egypt during the 30th Dynasty, and was a priest during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II. He is said to have been involved in the creation of the cult of Serapis - a god added to the Egyptian pantheon with both Hellenistic and Egyptian traits during the reign of Ptolemy I -, but this can not be confirmed. Manetho owes his importance to the fact that he wrote the Aegyptiaca, a collection of three books about the history of Ancient Egypt, commissioned by Ptolemy II in his effort to bring together the Egyptian and Hellenistic cultures. In order to do so, Manetho had access to the archives of the temple where he served as a priest. Such archives contained a vast number of different kinds of writings, ranging in contents from mythological texts to official records, from magical formulas to scientific treaties. He thus had all the sources he needed to write down the history of his country. With such sources, however, we may not be surprised to find myths and folk-tale mixed with the facts of the Egyptian history. It is to Manetho's Aegyptiaca that we owe the division of Ancient Egyptian history in 30 dynasties. This division is not always based on historical facts: it was in parts based on mythology and in parts on divisions of ruling families already established in the past.

Ægyptiaca Papyrus

Writing Divine Invention
In ancient Egypt, the invention of writing is attributed to the god Thoth or Tehuti (Dhwty in Egyptian), the scribe and historian of the gods, who also kept the calendar and invented art and science. Among many ancient societies, writing held a extremely special and important roll. Often writing is so revered that myths and deities were drawn up to explain its divine origin. In ancient Egypt, for example, the invention of writing is attributed to the god Thoth or Tehuti (Dhwty in Egyptian), who was not only the scribe and historian of the gods but also kept the calendar and invented art and science. In some Egyptian myths, Thoth is also portrayed as the creator of speech and possessing the power to transform speech into material objects. This ties in closely with the Egyptian belief that in order for a person to achieve immortality his or her name must be spoken or inscribed somewhere forever. Taautos of Byblos or Thoth came from Byblos, Phoenicia, ca. 2,000 BC. According to the Egyptians, language is attributed to Taautos4 who was the father of tautology or imitation. He invented the first written characters two thousand years BC or earlier.�� He played his flute to the chief deity of Byblos, the moon-goddess Ba'alat Nikkal. Taautos was called Thoth by the Greeks and Djehuti by the Egyptians. The mythology of Taautos is echoed in the god Dionysus, or Njörth the snake priest who was the consort to the moon-goddess. The snake priest was also represented by the symbol of a pillar, a wand or a caduceus. The Greeks equated Thoth with the widely-traveled Hermes. According to Egyptian tradition, Osiris traveled the world with Thoth. Asklepios a.k.a. as Eshmun is responsible for carrying on the teachings of Taautos on snake priesthood. Under the protective umbrella of Hindu culture, snake charmers playing their nasal punji echo the same tradition. In the early ages of Christianity, some monks, such as Pachomius was a Serapic Priest before he became a Christian. Similarly, Ormus is said to have been a Seraphic priest before being converted by Saint Mark. Some believe that he fused those Mysteries with Christianity and establishing a school of Solomonic Wisdom.

Egyptian Hieroglyphs Hieroglyphs were called by the Egyptians "the words of God" and were used mainly by the priests. The painstakingly drawn symbols decorated the walls of temples Hieratic script was used for conducting day to day business Hieroglyphs are written in rows or columns and can be read from left to right or from right to left. The direction in which the text is to be read is indicated by the human or animal figures which always face towards the beginning of the line. The upper symbols are read before the lower. The script was developed about four thousand years before Christ and there was also a decimal system of numeration up to a million. Unlike other cultures the early picture forms were never discarded or simplified probably because they are so very lovely to look at. Hieroglyphs were called by the Egyptians "the words of God" and were used mainly by the priests. These painstakingly drawn symbols were great for decorating the walls of temples but for conducting day to day business there was another script, known as hieratic This was a handwriting in which the picture signs were abbreviated to the point of abstraction Hieroglyphs are written in rows or columns and can be read from left to right or from right to left. You can distinguish the direction in which the text is to be read because the human or animal figures always face towards the beginning of the line. Also the upper symbols are read before lower.

History of Hieroglyphs
30th century BCE: The hieroglyphic system is developed. 500 BCE: A slow revolution of hieroglyphic writing starts, as new signs are introduced. The number of available signs grows over the centuries from around 700 to several thousands. 394 CE: The date of the last case of hieroglyphic writing. 1799: The Rosetta Stone is discovered, which contained the same text in two languages (Egyptian and Greek), and in three writing systems (hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek). 1822: The French scientist Jean-Francoise Champollion completes the decipherment of the hieroglyphs. History of Hieroglyphs Provenance: The original stele was made of black basalt. It was discovered by Napoleon's army at Rashid on the Nile delta in 1798. The Rosetta stone is the surviving part of a great basalt monument or stela bearing an inscription dated to the 9th year (196 B.C.) of Ptolemy V Epiphanes ( B.C.). The decree, voted by the priests of Egypt at Memphis, is repeated in two languages-- Egyptian (in both hieroglyphic and demotic scripts) and Greek--and records the good deeds of Ptolemy and the honours proposed for the twelve year old King. Copies of the decree were to have been erected in many of the temples of Egypt. The Stone was discovered by Napoleon's army in 1799 at Râshid (called Rosetta by Europeans) on the Nile Delta. Through the Rosetta Stone and other similar bilingual inscriptions scholars were able to decipher the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. The Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt, of whom Cleopatra was the last (died 30 B.C.), were of Macedonian origin, whose language was Greek. Rosetta Stone, 196 bce

Hieroglyphs from the Valley of the Kings

History of Hieratic Script
Around 2750 BCE: First examples of hieratic script. Around 2000 BCE: Writing direction changes from vertical to horizontal read from right to left Around 600 BCE: Demotic script replaces hieratic script for use with secular writing. Hieratic continued to be used for religious texts. Around 100 CE: Last examples of hieratic script. Writing system used in Egypt, that is developed from the hieroglyphic system. The word "hieratic" comes from Greek denoting "priestly", since this type of writing was used only for sacred texts in the last 1000 years of its existence. Hieratic script was used in carved or painted inscriptions, normally written in ink with a reed pen on papyrus. Heriatic script lasted for about 3200 years, but was through the last 1000 years challenged by demotic script. In general, hieratic script was more important in Ancient Egypt than hieroglyphs — hieratic script was taught in school, while hieroglyphs were only understood by a small minority in the society. FORM & STRUCTURE Hieratic script was in the first phases written vertically, but this changed to horizontal writing with a direction only from right to left. Hieratic script never had any instances of writing from left to right, which sometimes occurred with hieroglyphs. Hieratic script's development from hieroglyphs was so that the signs were altered in order to make them quicker to write. Generally, the pictures of the hieroglyphs were lost in hieratic script. One or two signs could be written in one stroke. There were also diacritical additions so that near identical signs to be distinguished.

Hieratic Script Developed from the hieroglyphic system.
Hieratic comes from Greek denoting "priestly", since it was used only for sacred texts in the last 1000 years of its existence. Hieratic script was used in carved or painted inscriptions, normally written in ink with a reed pen on papyrus. Hieratic script lasted for about 3200 years, but through the last 1000 years it was challenged by demotic script. Hieratic script was taught in school, while hieroglyphs were only understood by a small minority of priests in the society.

History of Demotic Script
660 bce: First known example of demotic script. 5th century bce: Demotic script is in use all over Egypt. Beginning 4th century ce: Demotic script is starting to be replaced by Greek writing. 425 ce: Last known example of demotic script. Demotic was the most abbreviated and cursive script that was developed by the ancient Egyptians. Demotic became the script for everyday use from the middle of the eighth century BC until the middle of the fourth century AD. The term "demotic" comes from the Greek word for people, or popular. Demotic apparently developed in Lower Egypt during the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. The oldest demotic document, which dates to the twenty-first year of the reign of Psammetik the First (about 643 BC), comes from Faiyum. Demotic basically developed from hieratic, and like hieratic, was always written from right to left. Most demotic texts were written in ink using a reed brush on papyrus or ostraca, which are shards of pottery. In addition to these materials, demotic was also written on wood or linen or carved in stone or metal. It was used for religious and magical texts, scribal training texts, letters, and legal and business documents.

Demotic Script Demotic script lasted for about 1000 years, during the last period of ancient Egyptian history. The term "demotic" comes from the Greek word for people, or popular. Demotic script was used for business and literary purposes, while hieratic was used for religious texts. Demotic was the most abbreviated and cursive script developed by the ancient Egyptians Most demotic texts were written in ink on papyrus. It was also written on wood or linen or carved in stone or metal. The Scribe Heti

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD Dynasties 1 & 2: ca. 3100-2700 bce
The culmination of the first stage of the Ancient Egyptian civilization that had begun centuries before during Prehistory The goal was to gain stable, superior status in Mid-East Establishment of divine kingship as Egypt's form of government Writing evolved from a few simple signs to a complex system of several hundreds of signs with both phonetic and ideographic values: Hieroglyphs Structures built in brick, wood and reeds were copied in stone, giving birth to the typical Ancient Egyptian architecture. The Early Dynastic Period is a period of some 500 years or more at the beginning of what is conventionally considered as the history of Ancient Egypt. It was the formative stage of the Ancient Egyptian civilisation, or rather the culmination of the formative stage that began centuries before during the Prehistory. It was during this period that the divine kingship became well established as Egypt's form of government, and with it, an entire culture that would remain virtually unchanged for the next 3000 or more years. Writing evolved from a few simple signs used to denote quantities of substances and their provenance, to a complex system of several hundreds of signs with both phonetic and ideographic values. Craftsmen increased their skills and experimented with the use of more durable materials. Structures built in brick, wood and reeds were copied in stone, giving birth to the typical Ancient Egyptian architecture. Another very important change that marks the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period is the rise of urbanism. Inhabitants of small settlements throughout the country abandoned their homes and moved to larger communities and cities. Several key factors, that could vary from region to region, have influenced this process of urbanisation: The need for security may have caused people to seek protection within the safety of fortified walls. It facilitated central control of the population by the state. Some relocations may thus have been forced by the government. The process of urbanisation appears to have started earlier in societies with a stronger hierarchical structure. Changes in the natural environment. This has apparently been the case at Hierakonpolis, one of the most important cities in late Predynastic Egypt. Society was evolving beyond its mere agricultural needs and required specialised craftsmen, traders and other skilled personnel. The ruling elite needed these people not only to be close at hand, but also to work and thus live together. Demographic changes, such as a growth in population, may have caused smaller settlements to extend and merge into one larger community.

MENES/NARMER According to Ancient Egyptian tradition, Menes was the first (human) king to have ruled over the whole of Egypt. Menes, a Southern (Upper Egyptian) king conquered the North (Lower Egypt) and united Upper- and Lower- Egypt. He is considered the first king of the 1st Dynasty and credited with many deeds: the founding of Memphis as the united country's new capital the building of dams the founding of new cults and temples. The identification of Menes is problematic: he is often identified with Narmer, first king on the ancient King Lists The Narmer Palette has long been interpreted as evidence that the Horus Narmer was the one who conquered the Nile delta and united Upper and Lower Egypt. Indeed, Narmer is shown wearing the White Crown, traditionally associated with Upper Egypt, while striking down an enemy identified as living in the marsh-lands. On the other side of the Palette, Narmer wears the Red Crown, traditionally associated with Lower Egypt (the Nile delta), while inspecting the bodies of decapitated enemies. A mace-head shows him wearing the Red Crown during a census in Lower Egypt. This representation has often been viewed as further evidence that Narmer seized control on this part of the country and imposed his authority on it. Narmer's immediate predecessor, the Horus Ka (or Sekhen), however, levied taxes in the Nile delta and must therefore have had at least partial control over this part of the country. The mace-head of a king identified as 'Scorpion', assumedly a predecessor of Narmer, has also been brought into the debate, as one reconstruction might show that 'Scorpion' too may have worn both the White and the Red Crowns. The assumption that king's before Narmer may have ruled over a united Egypt, and their tentative identification of Menes as the Horus Aha, has led several authors to believe that there was a Dynasty '0' before the rule of Menes. This hypothetical dynasty would have been composed of 'Scorpion', Ka, 'Mouth' and Narmer. 'Scorpion', however, has only been attested at Hierakonpolis and 'Mouth' may not even have been a king at all. It must also be noted that the identification of Menes as the Horus Aha is not supported by any evidence and that the Red Crown may initially have been of Upper Egyptian origin before it became the symbol of Lower Egypt, at the latest during the early 1st Dynasty. A pot-shard found at Naqada in Upper Egypt and dated several generations before the reign of Narmer bears the representation of the Red Crown. This is now believed to be an indication that the Red Crown was of Upper Egyptian origin.

NARMER PALETTE Red Crown of Lower Egypt White crown of Upper Egypt 1ST
Named after the Horus Narmer, whose titulary appears on both its faces, the Narmer Palette is a flat plate of schist of about 64 centimetres in height. Its size, weight and decoration suggest that it was a ceremonial palette, rather than an actual cosmetics palette for daily use. It was found in Hierakonpolis, the ancient Pre-Dynastic capital located in the south of Egypt, by the British archaeologist J.E. Quibell during the excavation season of 1897/98, in a deposit, along with other artefacts stemming from the early beginnings of the recorded history of Ancient Egypt: fragments of a ceremonial mace head belonging to Narmer and some other mace head fragments inscribed with the name of the Horus 'Scorpion', one of Narmer's predecessors. The exact finding circumstances of the palette have not been noted and there appear to be some contradictions in the publication of Quibell's work at Hierakonpolis. The archaeological sources have not allowed us either to relate any of the deeds traditionally credited to Menes, to one single archaeologically attested king. Several of these deeds actually belong to the repertoire of the ideal king who was supposed to ensure the regular flow of the floods by building dams, to appease the gods by creating cults for them, to destroy Egypt's enemies, ... 1ST DYNASTY NARMER PALETTE

Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
Wadjet Cobra Goddess protector of Lower Egypt Nekhbet Vulture Goddess protector of Upper Egypt 1.Hedjet Deshret Pshent

The Sema A rendering of the lungs attached to the windpipe: a symbol of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Other symbols further illustrate unification: The Sema bound with two plants, the papyrus and the lotus. The papyrus represents Lower Egypt and the lotus represents Upper Egypt. In other representations we find two gods binding the Sema together using papyrus and lotus.

Earliest tombs -- originally made from mud brick and built for only the most important Ancient Egyptians. Later they were also made from stone. The dead person was placed into the Mastaba with his or her worldly possessions To ensure a continued afterlife, a statue of the person was placed into a special room in the Mastaba called the Serdab. The Chapel had paintings on the walls which showed the dead person in life. In the Chapel there was a false door for the ka of the dead person to use when coming and going from the tomb. The Mastabas were robbed no matter how they were designed. MASTABAS At first, the Ancient Egyptians buried their dead in the desert sand. Unfortunately, wild animals would routinely dig up the bodies and eat them. In order to prevent change, the Egyptians developed a tomb called a Mastaba to protect the body of the dead. These funerary monuments (buildings for the dead) were originally made from mud brick and built for only the most important Ancient Egyptians. Later on, after Imhotep used stone to build Zoser's Step Pyramid, Mastabas were also made from stone. Since the Ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife, the dead person was placed into the Mastaba with as many of his or her worldly possessions as would fit into it. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the body had to be preserved so that the ba and ka of the dead person would have a place to return to. If the body was destroyed, then the ba and ka could no longer return and the person would die a second death and no longer have an afterlife. To ensure a continued afterlife, a statue of the person was placed into a special room in the Mastaba called the Serdab. This statue served as a copy of the body so that the ba and ka could return to it if the body was gone. Another room in the Mastaba was the Chapel. This room had paintings on the walls which showed the dead person in life. Families could come and pay their respects to the dead in this room. Since they believed that the dead person was now living in the Mastaba, it would be like visiting a relative.Today in Egypt, families sometimes bring picnics to the Mastabas. In the Chapel there was a false door. It did not open for people, but the Ancient Egyptians believed that the ka of the dead person would use the door when coming and going from the tomb. Sometimes a statue of the dead person's ka was placed in the doorway of the false door. Unfortunately the Mastabas were robbed no matter how they were designed. The Ancient Egyptians even lowered the burial chamber deeper and deeper and filled the shaft with stones. Still they were robbed. To preserve the body of the dead and prevent change, the Ancient Egyptians had to find a better way to bury their most important person, the Pharaoh. Out of this need, Imhotep designed the first pyramid for Pharaoh Zoser.

OLD KINGDOM The Age of the Pyramids

OLD KINGDOM “The Age of the Pyramids” Dynasties 3-6: ca. 2700 -2150 bce
All the provinces were united united under the king/pharaoh, but there was no central army. Powerful provincial governors, appointed by the king, collected taxes, defended borders, and promoted and improved agriculture. Egypt was regularly attacked from the East and West by Bedouins and from the South by Kush (Nubia) Bedouins were defeated in 2600 bce in the Sinai Desert Saqqara became the site of nobles’ tombs and the first pyramids: reliefs and paintings revealed sophisticated, elegant lives Pyramids and temples were built by paid labor during the flood time: public works projects

OLD KINGDOM Architecture
Pyramids and Temples 27th c. bce -- Djoser’s Step Pyramid Experimentation in the 4th Dynasty One-step pyramid Bent pyramid True pyramid

IMHOTEP “he who is coming in peace”
Served King Djoser bce The high priest of Ptah, vizier and the "overseer of works," architect, Responsible for the construction of Djoser’s Step Pyramid and surrounding funerary complex at Saqqara Introduced the use of limestone in architecture Substituted stone for papyrus and palm in columns Deified as the patron of medicine, of writing and of knowledge

Saqqara Six levels, over 200 feet high
Oldest large stone structure in world Originally surrounded by courts and buildings Six levels, over 200 feet high Originally surrounded by courts and buildings

Saqqara Part of the earliest known building to have been completely constructed in stone, this already has all those elements that make Ancient Egyptian architecture so typical: post and lintel construction flat roofs “doorways” for presentation of figures

Heb-Sed Chapels and Ritual
This court and its chapels provided the pharaoh with the means for his rejuvenating jubilee, called Heb-Sed. The ritual allowed the living pharaoh, after he had ruled for some years, to magically refresh his physical powers and thus continue to reign. For the deceased pharaoh, the ritual could be repeated endlessly in the Netherworld, enabling him to have an eternal after-life. The presence and function of this court and its chapels were of prime importance for the perpetuation of the king's life after death, as they provided him with the means necessary to have his rejuvenating jubilee, called Heb-Sed. This jubilee was a ritual or a set of rituals that allowed the living king, after he had ruled for some years, to magically refresh his physical powers and thus continue to reign. For the deceased king, the ritual could be repeated endlessly in the Netherworld, rejuvenating him and refreshing his powers, thus enabling him to have an eternal after-life. It is possible that, as part of his funerary cult, Djoser's Heb-Sed was meant to be re-enacted at this place after his death Note the introduction of relief columns

PYRAMID TEXTS The earliest funerary texts inscribed on a pharaoh's pyramid are found at Saqqara. The Pyramid Texts, were written on the inner passages and the walls of the burial chamber. They were intended to help the pharaohs travel through the afterworld, to secure the regeneration and eternal life of the king. The Pyramid Texts are considered the oldest body of religious writings in the world The Pyramid Texts are religious incantations inscribed on the walls of the burial chamber in Late Old Kingdom pyramids. The first king to employ them was Unis, last king of the Fifth Dynasty, and they are found in the burial chamber of every royal tomb of the Sixth Dynasty. Some of the utterances are hymns and addresses to various gods, while others are magical formulae designed to assure resurrection and ward off malign forces. Their purpose was to ensure a happy afterlife, and through the power of the written word ensure that the deceased would be provided with food and drink. However to ensure that no harm could come from the hieroglyphic symbols which represented harmful beings, such as lions and scorpions, they are often omitted or replaced with symbols of inanimate objects which had the same phonetic value. Human beings are frequently depicted with no legs or bodies, and scorpions have no tail, and many other signs were mutilated and cut in half. The earliest funerary texts inscribed on a pharaoh's pyramid are found at Saqqara. These sacred texts, known as the Pyramid Texts, were written on the inner passages and the walls of the burial chamber. They were intended to help the pharaohs travel through the afterworld, to secure the regeneration and eternal life of the king. The Pyramid Texts are considered the oldest body of religious writings in the world

The Pyramid Texts are made up of 750 utterances or spells.
Some of the utterances are hymns and addresses to various gods; others are magical formulae designed to assure resurrection and ward off malign forces. Their purpose was to ensure a happy afterlife, and through the power of the written word ensure that the deceased would be provided with food and drink. PYRAMID TEXTS

COLUMNS Egyptian architecture was the first to use stone columns
A column usually contains: a capital a shaft a pedestal Egyptians had the widest variety of capitals in the ancient world.

Columns, originally made from
palm and papyrus, bound around with string, were imitated in stone Palm-leaf column

Inspired by Nature... Lotus column Papyrus column

Hathor columns ...and by the gods The temple at Dendara

PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH/GIZA
three 4th-dynasty (c c BC) pyramids erected on a rocky plateau on the west bank of the Nile River near Al-Jizah (Giza), northern Egypt; in ancient times they were included among the Seven Wonders of the World. The ancient ruins of the Memphis area, including the Pyramids of Giza, Saqqarah, Dahshur, Abu Ruwaysh, and Abu Sir, were collectively designated a World Heritage site in 1979. The designations of the pyramids--Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure-- correspond to the kings for whom they were built. The northernmost and oldest pyramid of the group was built for Khufu (Greek: Cheops), the second king of the 4th dynasty. Called the Great Pyramid, it is the largest of the three, the length of each side at the base averaging 7553/4 feet (230 metres) and its original height being 4812/5 feet (147 metres). The middle pyramid was built for Khafre (Greek: Chephren), the fourth of the eight kings of the 4th dynasty; the structure measures 7073/4 feet (216 metres) on each side and was originally 471 feet (143 metres) high. The southernmost and last pyramid to be built was that of Menkaure (Greek: Mykerinus), the fifth king of the 4th dynasty. Each side measures 3561/2 feet (109 metres), and the structure's completed height was 218 feet (66 metres). All three pyramids were plundered both internally and externally in ancient times. Thus, most of the grave goods originally deposited in the burial chambers are missing, and the pyramids no longer reach their original heights because they have been almost entirely stripped of their outer casings of smooth white limestone; the Great Pyramid, for example, is now only 4512/5 feet (138 metres) high. Khafre retains the outer limestone casing only at its topmost portion. PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH/GIZA

It is the last survivor of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The Great Pyramid, the tallest building in the world until early in the 20th century,was built in just under 30 years. It is the last survivor of the Seven Wonders of the World. Five thousand years ago Gizeh, situated on the Nile's west bank, became the royal necropolis, or burial place, for Memphis, the pharaoh's capital city. Gizeh's three pyramids and the Sphinx were constructed in the fourth dynasty of Egypt's Old Kingdom, arguably the first great civilization on earth. Standing at the base of the Great Pyramid, it is hard to imagine that this monument -- which remained the tallest building in the world until early in this century -- was built in just under 30 years. It presides over the plateau of Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo, and is the last survivor of the Seven Wonders of the World. Five thousand years ago Giza, situated on the Nile's west bank, became the royal necropolis, or burial place, for Memphis, the pharaoh's capital city. Giza's three pyramids and the Sphinx were constructed in the fourth dynasty of Egypt's Old Kingdom, arguably the first great civilization on earth. Today, Giza is a suburb of rapidly growing Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the fifth largest in the world. About 2,550 B.C., King Khufu, the second pharaoh of the fourth dynasty, commissioned the building of his tomb at Giza. Some Egyptologists believe it took 10 years just to build the ramp that leads from the Nile valley floor to the pyramid, and 20 years to construct the pyramid itself. On average, the over two million blocks of stone used to build Khufu's pyramid weigh 2.5 tons, and the heaviest blocks, used as the ceiling of Khufu's burial chamber, weigh in at an estimated 40 to 60 tons.

How did the ancient Egyptians move the massive stones from quarries both nearby and as far away as 500 miles? Many Egyptologists agree the stones were hauled up ramps using ropes of papyrus twine. Gradually sloping ramps, built out of mud, stone, and wood were used as transportation causeways for moving the large stones to their positions up and around the four sides of the pyramids. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid took 20 years to construct and demanded the labour of 100,000 men. Late 20th century archaeologists found evidence that a more limited workforce may have occupied the site on a permanent rather than a seasonal basis and suggested that as few as 20,000 workers, with accompanying support personnel (bakers, physicians, priests, etc.), would have been adequate to the task.

How did the ancient Egyptians move the massive stones used to build the pyramids from quarries both nearby and as far away as 500 miles? This question has long been debated, but many Egyptologists agree the stones were hauled up ramps using ropes of papyrus twine. The popular belief is that the gradually sloping ramps, built out of mud, stone, and wood were used as transportation causeways for moving the large stones to their positions up and around the four sides of the pyramids The question of how the pyramids were built has not received a wholly satisfactory answer. The most plausible one is that the Egyptians employed a sloping and encircling embankment of brick, earth, and sand, which was increased in height and in length as the pyramid rose; stone blocks were hauled up the ramp by means of sledges, rollers, and levers. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid took 20 years to construct and demanded the labour of 100,000 men. This figure is believable given the assumption that these men, who were agricultural labourers, worked on the pyramids only (or primarily) while there was little work to be done in the fields--i.e., when the Nile River was in flood. By the late 20th century, however, archaeologists found evidence that a more limited workforce may have occupied the site on a permanent rather than a seasonal basis. It was suggested that as few as 20,000 workers, with accompanying support personnel (bakers, physicians, priests, etc.), would have been adequate to the task.

Khufu is perhaps the most colossal single building ever erected on the planet. Its sides rise at an angle of 51º52' and are accurately oriented to the four cardinal points of the compass. The Great Pyramid's core is made of yellowish limestone blocks, the outer casing (now almost completely gone) and the inner passages are of finer light-coloured limestone, and the interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite. Approximately million blocks of stone were cut, transported, and assembled to create the 5,750,000-ton structure, which is a masterpiece of technical skill and engineering ability. The internal walls as well as those few outer-casing stones that still remain in place show finer joints than any other masonry constructed in ancient Egypt. The entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north side, about 59 feet (18 metres) above ground level. A sloping corridor descends from it through the pyramid's interior masonry, penetrates the rocky soil on which the structure rests, and ends in an unfinished underground chamber. From the descending corridor branches an ascending passageway that leads to a room known as the Queen's Chamber and to a great slanting gallery that is 151 feet (46 metres) long. At the upper end of this gallery a long and narrow passage gives access to the burial room proper, usually termed the King's Chamber. This room is entirely lined and roofed with granite. From the chamber two narrow shafts run obliquely through the masonry to the exterior of the pyramid; it is not known whether they were designed for a religious purpose or were meant for ventilation. Above the King's Chamber are five compartments separated by massive horizontal granite slabs; the likely purpose of these slabs was to shield the ceiling of the burial chamber by diverting the immense thrust exerted by the overlying masses of masonry.

THE GREAT SPHINX In a depression to the south of Chephren's pyramid sits a creature with a human head and a lion's body. The name 'sphinx' which means 'strangler' was first given by the Greeks to a fabulous creature which had the head of a woman and the body of a lion and the wings of a bird. The sphinx appears to have started in Egypt in the form of a sun god. The Egyptian sphinx is usually a head of a king wearing his headdress and the body of a lion . There are, however, sphinxes with ram heads that are associated with the god Amun. The Great Sphinx is to the northeast of Chephren's Valley Temple. Where it sits was once a quarry. Chephren's workers shaped the stone into the lion and gave it their king's face over 4,500 years ago. The sphinx faces the rising sun with a temple to the front which resembles the sun temples which were built later by the kings of the 5th Dynasty. The figure was buried for most of its life in the sand. King Thutmose IV ( BC) placed a stela between the front paws of the figure. It describes when Thutmose, while still a prince, had gone hunting and fell asleep in the shade of the sphinx. During a dream, the sphinx spoke to Thutmose and told him to clear away the sand because it was choking the sphinx. The sphinx told him that if he did this, he would be rewarded with a kingship. Thutmose carried out this request and the sphinx held up his end of the deal. The sphinx is built of soft sandstone and would have disappeared long ago had it not been buried for so long. The body is 200 feet (60m) in length and 65 feet (20m) tall. The face of the sphinx is 13 feet (4m) wide and its eyes are 6 feet (2m) high. Part of the uraeus (sacred cobra), the nose and the ritual beard are now missing. . The beard from the sphinx is displayed in the British Museum. The statue is crumbling today because of the wind, humidity and the smog from Cairo. Attempts to restore it have often caused more harm than good. No one can be certain who the figure is to personify. It is possible that it is Chephren. If that is so, it would then be the oldest known royal portrait in such large scale. Some say that it was built after the pyramid of Chephren was complete. It may have been set as a sort of scarecrow to guard his tomb. Still others say it is the face of his guardian deity, rather than Chephren himself. The image of the sphinx is a depiction of royal power. Only a pharaoh or an animal could be shown this way, with the animal representing a protective deity. In the 1980's, a carefully planned restoration of the Sphinx was in progress. Over 6 years, more than 2,000 limestone blocks were added to the body of the sphinx and chemicals were injected. This treatment did not work. It just flaked away along with parts of the original rock. Later, various mortars and many workers who were not trained in restoration worked for six months to repair it. In 1988 the left shoulder crumbled and blocks fell off. Present attempts at restoration are under the control of the Supreme Council of Antiquities' archaeologists. They are concentrating on draining away subsoil seepage which is damaging the rock. They are also repairing the damaged shoulder with smaller blocks and staying with the original size

pyramid obelisk statue

ARTISTIC CANONS Canons or conventions for Egyptian art were set during the Old Kingdom and generally adhered to throughout Egyptian history Frontality Body proportions Rigid, erect stance Dignity Differing conventions for aristocrats, commoners and slaves Statue of Demedji and Hennutsen, ca. 2465–26 B.C.E.; early Dynasty 5; Old Kingdom

OLD KINGDOM The pre-eminence of RA
Most aristocratic of the gods -- prefers offerings of gold, silver and slaves Huge offerings were burnt on obelisks Priests used the offering money for their own purposes Mummification was very expensive and limited to the aristocracy Religious rites consumed a huge part of the country’s budget At the end of the 4th dynasty the power and authority of the priest of RA reached its height when the high priest married the heiress princess backed by bribed provincial governors

1st INTERMEDIATE PERIOD Dynasties 7-10: ca. 2150 -2040 bce
Civil war erupted at the end of the 6th Dynasty caused perhaps by drought and inadequate flooding from the Nile Priests of RA were blamed for unrest Worship of OSIRIS became more prominent: more egalitarian popular with commoners rise of ethical and moral religious concepts

MIDDLE KINGDOM Relief of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, ca. 2040–2010 B.C.E.; reign of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep; Middle Kingdom

MIDDLE KINGDOM Dynasties 11-13: ca. 2040-1640 bce
Country reunited under Menuhotep II of Thebes Less centralized government with more authority given to regional governors Golden period of agriculture: land reclamation and irrigation products led to highest crop yields in the world Worship of AMON became pre-eminent Use of mud brick for building rather than stone Rock-cut tombs came into use Classical age of Egyptian literature: prophecies, hymns, narrative prose tales: Tale of Sinuhe

TOMBS: Grave Goods Mud-brick pyramids and mastabas have largely disappeared Some rock-cut tombs remain at Beni-Hasan, ca bce Layout of tombs similar to homes Paintings of domestic scenes and farm life Statue of an Offering Bearer, ca bce Model of a Riverboat, ca bce Coffin of Khnum-nakht, ca. 1900–1800 bce

MIDDLE KINGDOM ANIMALS
Cat, ca. 1991–1783 bce Statuette of a Hippopotamus, ca. 1991–1783 bce

2nd INTERMEDIATE PERIOD Dynasties 14-16: ca. 1640-1450 bce
A group of Asians, known as the Hyksos, established their own dynasties in Egypt. It is commonly assumed that they invaded Egypt and overtook it by force. Egyptians called the Hyksos: "rulers of the foreign countries.” There is no real proof of military conflicts between the Egyptians and the Hyksos at the end of the Middle Kingdom. It is possible that Asian settlers who had been coming to Egypt for some generations had become so powerful, that they were able to gain political control and establish their own dynasties, without a military show of force. During the early 2nd Intermediate Period, a group of Asians, known as the Hyksos, established their own dynasties in Egypt. Little is known about their origins, or about the way they gained control over large parts of Egypt. It is commonly assumed that they invaded Egypt and overtook it by force. This theory may be supported by the name the Egyptians themselves gave to the Hyksos: "rulers of the foreign countries", which may indicate that the Hyksos ruled outside Egypt before invading it. The weakness of the Egyptians at the beginning of the 2nd Intermediate Period may have invited a military invasion. On the other hand, there is no real proof of military conflicts between the Egyptians and the Hyksos at the end of the Middle Kingdom. It is also possible that the Asian settlers who had been coming to Egypt for some generations had become so powerful, that they were able to gain political control and establish their own dynasties, without a military show of force. The fact that some of them used Egyptian names and that they did not try to integrate their own Asian heritage into the Egyptian culture, may indeed lead to suppose that the Hyksos had been living long enough in Egypt before they seized power to have adapted themselves to the Egyptian culture. By whatever means the Hyksos came into power in Egypt, they were largely accepted throughout the country as the ruling dynasty. They did, however, tolerate other dynasties to coexist with their own. The 15th Dynasty was not the only dynasty of Hyksos: there was also the less important 16th Dynasty, about which little is known. It is possible that there were still some kings of the 13th Dynasty who ruled a part of the country. The kings of the 14th Dynasty -if there ever was a 14th Dynasty- are said to have ruled the Western part of the Delta. And in Thebes ruled an Egyptian house: the 17th Dynasty. Although the time the Hyksos ruled Egypt has often been depicted as a time of chaos and misery (especially by later generations of Egyptians), it was also a time of technological advance. Before the Hyksos, Egypt has stayed largely ignorant of the advances made in the rest of the Ancient Near East. Copper and bronze were introduced into Egypt during this period, together with many new tools and, most importantly, weapons. The rule of the Hyksos during the 2nd Intermediate Period would prepare the Egyptian for the adventure of the New Kingdom.

HYKSOS CONTRIBUTIONS to Egyptian Civilization
Introduction of copper and bronze Upright loom Musical instruments: long-necked lute, lyre, oboe, tambourine Weapons: chain armor, battle axes, bronze swords, high velocity composite bows, horse-drawn chariots, military tactics

NEW KINGDOM Imperial Egypt

NEW KINGDOM Dynasties 18-20: 1550-1070 bce
After the expulsion of the Hyksos during the 17th and 18th dynasties, Egypt set out on a series of conquests to secure the borders and create an Empire Spoils of war and the tributes owed by the many conquered states increased Egypt’s wealth and prosperity New temples were built, older ones were restored or enlarged. Especially favoured were the god AMON and his great temple at Karnak, in the capital Thebes. Egypt’s stability was briefly ruptured the late 18th Dynasty with the Amarna-revolution. The expulsion of the Hyksos, began during the late 17th Dynasty by Seqenenre II or by Kamose and completed by 18th Dynasty monarch Ahmose in 1522, was the start of a series of conquests that would bring Egypt peace and prosperity. The age of conquest had begun! In an effort to secure Egyptian borders against future invasions, Ahmose conquered a territory stretching from Syria-Palestine in the North, to the 2nd cataract in Nubia in the South. Within a few decennia, Egypt became the most powerful nation in the Ancient Near East. Ahmose's policy of aggression against Asia and Nubia was followed by his successors, especially by Thutmosis I and Thutmosis III, who expanded the southern boundary as far as the 4th cataract and the northern as far as the Euphrates river near the modern-day Turkish border. The spoils brought home from the many successful military campaigns and the tributes owed by the many conquered states increased Egypt’s wealth and prosperity, which was translated in a tremendous building activity: new temples were built, older ones were restored or enlarged. Especially favoured were the god Amun and his great temple at Karnak, in the capital Thebes. Egypt’s stability was briefly ruptured when the late 18th Dynasty king Amenhotep IV, also known as Akhenaten, changed the Egyptian religion and had most temples closed, favouring one new god, the solar-deity Aton. During this period of turmoil and upheaval, the so-called Amarna-revolution, Egypt lost most of it’s former influence in Asia and Nubia.

New Kingdom Highlights
New Kingdom Highlights Amarna Revolution King Tut

Egyptian Empire ca bce

Karnak

Karnak at Dawn

Valley of the Kings necropolis of rock tombs built during the New Kingdom

Amenhofsis

HATSHEPSUT reigned c. 1479--c. 1458 bce
She acted for several years as regent for the young Tuthmosis III, her nephew and stepson, She assumed pharaonic titles and styled herself as the senior partner of a co-regency. Unlike previous women who had ruled Egypt, she was consistently portrayed in sculpture and relief as a male to legitimize her claim to the throne. She built extensively at Karnak, but her architectural masterpiece is her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, a monument whose plan foreshadows the later funerary temples of the New Kingdom. (reg c c BC). Ancient Egyptian ruler of Egypt and patron. Daughter of Tuthmosis I and princess of the royal blood, Hatshepsut married her half-brother Tuthmosis II and, at the death of her father, became queen consort. Her considerable influence as queen and 'god's wife' of Amun continued unabated when her father died, and she acted for several years as regent for the young Tuthmosis III, her nephew and stepson. For reasons that remain conjectural, Hatshepsut assumed pharaonic titles, probably in year seven of Tuthmosis's reign, and insinuated herself as the senior partner of a co-regency. Unlike previous women who had ruled Egypt, she was consistently portrayed in sculpture and relief as a male, creating a polite fiction that enabled her to legitimize her claim to the throne. Her sculpture generally conforms to the royal style of Tuthmosis III, although in certain instances the sculptor has attempted to soften the masculine conception of the vigorous and athletic youth that embodies the Tuthmosid ideal. Hatshepsut is occasionally depicted with slender elongated limbs that may well be an attempt to imbue the royal figure with a sense of femininity. She built extensively at Karnak (see Thebes (i), §II, 1), including a red quartzite sanctuary for the god Amun (the 'Chapelle Rouge') and a series of shrines for the deposition of portable divine barks, but her architectural masterpiece is her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, a monument whose plan foreshadows the later funerary temples of the New Kingdom. The temple reliefs depict her commercial expedition to the land of Punt and romanticized accounts of her divine birth, her youth and her coronation by the gods. Perhaps because of the circumstances of her unorthodox accession Hatshepsut was the first to explore the uses of propaganda on public monuments; the earliest preserved accounts of oracles date from her reign. Hatshepsut's tomb in Thebes (KV 20: the earliest datable royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings) was intended to hold her remains and those of her father. Approximately 20 years after her death, her name and figure were hacked from her monuments and her statues broken into fragments by order of Tuthmosis III; the motive for her posthumous disgrace, however, remains as uncertain as the reason for her accession.

Seated Statue of Hatshepsut, ca. 1473– 1458 B. C. E
Seated Statue of Hatshepsut, ca. 1473– B.C.E.; Dynasty 18; reign of Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III; New Kingdom

HATSHEPSUT’S TOMB The earliest datable royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Approximately 20 years after her death, her name and figure were hacked from her monuments and her statues broken into fragments by order of Tuthmosis III Hatshepsut's tomb in Thebes (KV 20: the earliest datable royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings) was intended to hold her remains and those of her father. Approximately 20 years after her death, her name and figure were hacked from her monuments and her statues broken into fragments by order of Tuthmosis III; the motive for her posthumous disgrace, however, remains as uncertain as the reason for her accession.

AMARNA REVOLUTION Amenhotep IV, also known as Akhenaten, changed the Egyptian religion and had most temples closed. Established a new capital at Akhetaten, now Amarna Akhenaten favored one new god, the solar-deity ATEN. Amarna-style painting and sculpture were characterized by a greater realism and artistic freedom. During this period of turmoil and upheaval, Egypt lost most of its former influence in Asia and Nubia. Ancient Egyptian art style that takes its name from el-Amarna, the site of the capital city during the reigns of Akhenaten (reg c c BC) and Smenkhkare (reg c c BC). Amarna-style painting and sculpture were characterized by a move away from the traditional idealism of Egyptian art towards a greater realism and artistic freedom. This new sense of vigour and naturalism is most apparent in surviving fragments of paintings from the walls and floors of palaces (Cairo, Egyp. Mus., and Oxford, Ashmolean; see Egypt, ancient, §X, 2). The statuary and reliefs, mainly from el-Amarna, Thebes and Hermopolis Magna, represent the royal family and their subjects in a style that was initially grotesque and often crude, as the artists struggled to come to terms with the new approach (see Egypt, ancient, §IX, 3(viii)). However, they eventually reached a high degree of sophistication and beauty, exemplified by the painted limestone bust of Queen Nefertiti (Berlin, Agyp. Mus.) from el-Amarna.

Akhenaten and Nefertiti

Nefertiti

ATEN AMEN Decorated balustrade fragment
Amarna, Great Palace Reign of Akhenaten, 1353–1336 B.C. Stela of Wesi, Memphis Reign of Amenhotep III, 1390–1353 B.C ATEN Osiris, a legendary ruler who died and was resurrected, is represented as a crowned, mummified king. The inscription gives the names and titles of Wesi and Ipuy along with a prayer invoking offerings for their spirits in the afterlife. Ipuy was a Chantress of Amen-Ra; the name Amen has been chiselled out at the bottom of the third column from the left, part of Akhenaten's campaign against this god. The inscription gives the names of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, followed by terms of praise and the mention of "the House of Rejoicing of Aten in the Mansion of Aten in Akhetaten," (Akhetaten is the name of Akhenaten's capital city, moden Amarna). Aten is represented by the abstract symbol of the sun's disk with outstretched rays, ending in tiny hands. Wesi, Commander of the Navy and Chief of Archers under Akhenaten's father, and his wife Ipuy present offerings to Osiris, asking that he will provide for them in the afterlife. Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti, and one of their daughters present offerings to Aten. The royal family were the intermediaries between their subjects and the god. No one else is ever shown presenting offerings to Aten. AMEN

Naturalistic and idealized plaster heads

Small Luxuries comb kohl pot silver mirror

LATE DYNASTIC PERIOD Dynasties 21-31: 1070-332 bce
Also known as the 3rd Intermediate Period ( or ): Dynasties 21 through 24 or 26 and the Late Period ( or ) Often described as a period of decline and chaos as there was more than one centre of power in Egypt. A period of relative peace and stability. The 21st Dynasty royal tombs, unearthed in Tanis, are among the richest finds indicating the increasing wealth of private persons, such as the Theban high-priests. In most history books, the period following the New Kingdom is the 3rd Intermediate Period ( or ), composed of the dynasties 21 through 24 or 26. This period, followed by the Late Period ( or ), is often described as a period of decline and chaos. It is true that during most of the so-called 3rd Intermediate Period, there was more than one centre of power in Egypt: in Tanis, in the Nile Delta, there were the kings from the 21st and 22nd Dynasty, who nominally ruled the entire country, but who had to share their power with the Theban high-priests, or with some other, local dynasties, such as the 23rd and the 24th. This division of power, however, did not necessarily lead to a division of the country, as it had during the 1st and 2nd Intermediate Periods, nor did it lead to civil wars or a decline in wealth. To the contrary, the period so often called "3rd Intermediate Period" was a period of relative peace and stability. The 21st Dynasty royal tombs, unearthed in Tanis, are among the richest finds in the history of Egyptian archaeology. That the power did not only reside with the king and his entourage, was the result of the increasing wealth of private persons, such as the Theban high-priests. This too is echoed by the immense private tombs found on the Theban West Bank, dated to this period. I have therefore chosen not to use the name "3rd Intermediate Period" and have the Late Dynastic Period immediately follow the New Kingdom. What is called the "Late Period" in most history books, has also become part of this "Late Dynastic Period". During most of the New Kingdom, the wealth and power of the Theban high-priests had slowly increased. It is possible that 18th Dynasty King Akhenaten’s Amarna-revolution was an attempt to break this power. If so, the attempt failed for a mere 20 years later, the old temples were reopened and the high-priests were reinstated in their offices. Whatever Akhenaten’s motives for his religious revolution, the reinstatement of the traditional cult was a victory for the high-priests of Thebes. At the end of the New Kingdom, during the later years of Ramesses XI, a Theban high-priest named Herihor, possibly a brother-in-law to Ramesses XI, was able to combine his influential office with the office of vizier and he bore the honorary title of "viceroy of Kush". He was so wealthy that he was able to build parts of the Khonsu-temple in Karnak and he even usurped the royal privilege to have his name written in a cartouche! When Ramesses XI died, the dynasty of high-priests had become a major political factor.

Nubian Dynasty: Kush 770 – 657 bce
Dynastic rivalry brought an end to the new found unity and power. Not only was Egypt divided between the Delta and Thebes, now the Delta itself would be divided as well. Taking advantage from these internal conflicts, a new power arose in the South, in Nubia. A dynasty had come to power intent on conquering Egypt. The 25th Dynasty would be a Nubian Dynasty. The Nubian monarchs of the 25th Dynasty would rule the larger part of Egypt -but they would rule it following the old Egyptian traditions. The kings of the 21st Dynasty were probably related through marriage to the last Ramesside. They moved the capital from Pi-Ramesse to Tanis, both in the Nile Delta. There they launched an elaborate building activity, one that was to rival the temple of Amun in Thebes. They also moved the royal necropolis from the Valley of the Kings on the Theban West Bank to Tanis, where the intact tomb of Psusennes I has been discovered in the late 1930’s. Another important political factor was the Libyan military, which had been integrated into the Egyptian army and police force during the late New Kingdom. At the end of the 21st Dynasty, one of those leaders, who was married to the daughter of the last king of the 21st Dynasty, came into power. He founded a new dynasty, the 22nd, also called the Libyan or the Bubastide Dynasty since the Dynasty was founded by Libyans who lived in the Delta-city of Bubastis. The early Bubastide kings were powerful rulers who were able to re-establish Egyptian presence in Palestine. They were also able to determine who would be high-priest in Thebes and they often picked someone from their own family, thus reinforcing the Egyptian unity. But dynastic rivalry would soon bring an end to the new found unity and power. In Leontopolis, also in the Delta, a 23rd Dynasty was proclaimed. This example would soon be followed by Tefnakht, a prince in the Delta-city of Sais, who founded the 24th Dynasty. Not only was Egypt divided between the Delta and Thebes, now the Delta itself would be divided as well.

Amenirdas I ca. 700 B.C., 25th Dynasty The daughter of King Kashta of Nubia
Shabako Ruled Egypt

Significance of Nubian Dynasty
A revival of Egyptian religion and architecture took place and major monumental constructions by Nubians were completed at several locations along the Nile. Several Nubian pharaohs such as Shabaka, Shabataka and Taharka are identified by name in the Old Testament as they had key alliances with the Judeans and Phoenicians in their joint efforts to oppose Assyrian expansion. Substantial experimentation with alphabetic writing systems, such as demotic emerged at this time. A few centuries later, the Nubians began their own unique style of alphabetic writing which still needs decipherment today as Africa's oldest writing system outside of Egypt: the Meroitic alphabet Such factors serve to document a very early, but key, contribution to world history by an African population and they The significance of the 25th Dynasty is very great. This period (ca BC) was a time when Nubians ruled most or all of Egypt as full-scale "guest" pharaohs. It was in this time that a revival of Egyptian religion and architecture took place and major monumental constructions by Nubians were completed at several locations along the Nile. The Nubian revival also saw a rebirth of pyramid construction which lasted longer and built more pyramids than even in Egypt. Several of these Nubian pharaohs such as Shabaka, Shabataka and Taharka are identified by name in the Old Testament as they had key alliances with the Judeans and Phoenicians in their joint efforts to oppose Assyrian expansion. This was also a significant period for the emergence of substantial experimentation with alphabetic writing systems, such as demotic which emerged at this time. A few centuries later, the Nubians began their own unique style of alphabetic writing which still needs decipherment today as Africa's oldest writing system outside of Egypt. Such factors serve to document a very early, but key, contribution to world history by an African population and they offer a powerful antidote to the misinformed notion that Africa "has no history" in the sense of a written account. Although the study of Egyptian hieroglyphics dates back to the close of the 18th century, the study of the second oldest system of writing on the African continent, Meroitic, has only been initiated in the 19th century and was not very seriously advanced until the 20th century. Despite the rapid advance in the transliteration of the Meroitic alphabet, the study has been effectively stalled ever since.

Meroitic

Assyrians The peace and stability resulting from the Nubian conquest was ended by the Assyrians. Although the presence of the Assyrians in Egypt was a short one, its results were devastating. Thebes was plundered, ransacked and many temples were destroyed. Fortunately for Egypt, the Assyrians were forced to return to Assur, leaving Psamtek I the opportunity to take control over the whole of the country. With him began the 26th Dynasty and a new era of stability and prosperity in Egypt.

Egyptian Warrior King Assyrian Warrior King

PERSIAN CONQUEST bce The latter part of the Late Dynastic Period starts and ends with a Persian occupation. The first Persian occupation, also known as the 27th Dynasty, lasted for more than a century (525 – 404). The second Persian occupation only lasted for 10 years (343 – 332), but it was one of the darkest pages in the history of Ancient Egypt: temples were plundered, holy animals were butchered and the people were subjected to demanding tributes. Egypt’s ordeal made it ready to welcome the Alexander the Great as its liberator. With the "conquest" of Egypt by Alexander, Egypt would become a Hellenistic state and a new era had begun.

GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD 332 bce-395 ce
When Alexander the Great entered Egypt, he was welcomed as the son of the god Amon and immediately accepted as the new king of the country. He founded a new city on the shores of the Mediterranean, the first of many to bear the name of Alexandria. He also began to restore all the damage done by the Persian occupation. Upon his death, his empire was divided between his generals. Egypt was taken by Ptolemy, who conquered Syria-Palestine. The Ptolemaic pharaohs continued Alexander’s policy of restoration in Egypt and supported the building of new temples throughout the country to ensure the support of the Egyptian clergy and the Egyptian people. When the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great entered Egypt, he was welcomed as the son of the god Amun and he was immediately accepted as the new king of the country. He founded a new city on the shores of the Mediterranean, the first of many cities to bear the name of Alexandria. He also set about restoring all the damage done by the Persian occupation. Upon his death and the death of his two successors Phillipos Arrhidaeos and Alexander IV, his empire was divided between his generals. Egypt was taken by Ptolemy, son of Lagos, who had been appointed to satrap of the country by Alexander himself. During the wars that resulted from this division, he was also able to conquer Syria-Palestine. He and his successors would not only continue Alexander’s policy of restoration in Egypt, they also supported the building of new temples throughout the country. On the island of Philae, Ptolemy II Philopator started with the rebuilding of the 26th Dynasty temple of Isis; his successor Ptolemy III Euergetes I started with the building of a new temple dedicated to Horus. Their successors would continue to enlarge these temples next to building new ones such as the temple of Hathor at Dendara and the temple of Khnum and Neith in Esna. This way they ensured the support of the Egyptian clergy and the Egyptian people. During the reign of Ptolemy V, there was some upheaval when an Egyptian Dynasty tried to seize power. The dynastic rivalry of the later Ptolemies finally resulted in an intervention of the Romans to put Ptolemy XII Euergetes II back into power. From then on, the Romans began to play an important part in Egyptian history. They again intervened, this time in favour of Ptolemy XII’s daughter Cleopatra, a couple of years later. Although Cleopatra was a capable and a politically gifted ruler, she would become involved in the power struggle of the Romans Octavianus (Augustus) and Antonius and unfortunately, she chose the wrong side. When her and Antonius’ fleets were destroyed at the battle of Actium and she committed suicide, Egypt became a Roman province. The Roman emperors too, continued the policy of building temples in Egypt, thus ensuring the loyalty of the Egyptian clergy and a stable flow of grain out of the greatest granary of the world. The beginning of the Roman Period is one of the most prosperous in Egypt: new cities were built and the land was considered of great importance to the world. As part of the Roman Empire, Egypt was also more open to the world than before. Although it had admitted its share of foreigners in the past, it had always clung to its own culture and to its own ideas. Since the conquest by Alexander the Great, however, it became more and more a Hellenistic state, with a Hellenistic culture, and as a Roman province, it was also more open to the ideology that would finally strike the mortal blow to the millennia old Ancient Egyptian civilisation: Christianity. During the first centuries A.D., Egypt was very slowly being converted to this new religion. Soon, the old temples would be closed and converted into monasteries or churches. The images of old gods and kings, meant to preserve the creation, would be considered as demonic and were cut out. The papyri that were kept in the temples’ libraries were burned. When the Roman Empire was divided into two parts and Egypt became a part of the Byzantine Empire, most of its population had converted to Christianity. The only temple with an ancient cult was the temple of Isis on the island of Philae. Although this last Egyptian temple had coexisted peacefully with the new Christian cult, rumour was spread in the beginning of the 6th century A.D. that the devil was worshipped in that temple with human sacrifice. Its closing by force of arms in 535/537 A.D. meant the definite end of the Ancient Egyptian civilisation.

Cleopatra (69-30 bce) The dynastic rivalry of the later Ptolemies finally resulted in an intervention by the Romans They again intervened in favour of Ptolemy XII’s daughter Cleopatra VII, a few years later. Cleopatra, a capable and a politically gifted ruler, became involved in the power struggle of the Romans, Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) and Marc Antony, and unfortunately, she chose the wrong side. When her fleets were destroyed at the Battle of Actium, she committed suicide, and Egypt became a Roman province. Her son Caesarion (fathered by Julius Caesar) was probably killed by orders of Octavian; her 3 children by Marc Antony (Cleopatra Selene, Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus) were brought to Rome to be raised.

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback