1. Biochemistry Notes:
Macromolecules

2. Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
ALWAYS contain carbon and have C to H bonds and are found in living organisms
Also typically contain H, O, N, P, S
Examples: nucleic acids, fats, sugars, proteins, enzymes, and many fuels
Inorganic Molecules
Sometimes contain carbon, but not C-H bonds
Examples: NaCl (salt), CO2, diamonds (pure carbon)

3. Properties of Carbon Carbon has 4 valence electrons
(on outermost level)
Carbon will form 4 covalent bonds with many elements (HONPS) and with other carbon atoms
Can form single, double, or triple bonds

4. Properties of Carbon
It can form chains of unlimited length, branched molecules, or rings

5. Macromolecules Macro - Large (Molecules)
Macromolecules are formed when monomers are linked
together to form
longer chains called
polymers.

6. Four major types of Macromolecules
(Polymer)
Monomer
Carbohydrates (Polysaccharide)
Monosaccharide
Proteins
Amino Acids
Lipids
diff.types – triglyceride,
phospholipid and steroid, cholesterol
Fatty acids & glycerol make up a triglyceride (most common lipid)
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides

7. Dehydration Reaction (aka Condensation Reactions)
Monomers can be linked together by a process called dehydration synthesis
(dehydrate – take out a water molecule. synthesis- to make)
In dehydration synthesis,
1)a covalent bond forms between the two monomers
2)a water molecule is also formed from the removal of –OH and –H from 2 different carbon atoms

8. Hydrolysis Reactions
Polymers can be broken apart by hydrolysis reactions.
In hydrolysis, the addition of a water molecule breaks the covalent bond between monomers, separating the monomers, adding an – OH group to one and a –H group to another.

9. Carbohydrate Structure
Carbohydrates are always composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules in a 1:2:1 ratio (ex: glucose = C6H12O6)

10. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides typically have five or six carbon atoms and function on their own
Glucose : found in plants- main source of cellular energy (absorbed directly into the bloodstream)
fructose: found in fruit- source of energy (absorbed directly into the bloodstream)
Both are C6H12O6 in different arrangements

11. Disaccharides Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides joined
Sucrose (table sugar)= comes from beets, sugar cane- used for energy
Lactose= found in milk- used to give energy to young nursing organisms or those who drink milk
Both sucrose and lactose have a chemical formula of C12H22O11

12. Carbohydrate Structure
Polysaccharides- many monosaccharides put together (ex: Starch, Glycogen, and Cellulose)
Polysaccharides play various roles from energy storage in Starch for plants and Glycogen for animals- to structural support in Cellulose for plants.

13. Dehydration in Carbohydrates
-OH of one monomer and the –H of another monomer are released (forming H20) and a disaccharide forms
What would hydrolysis look like?

14. Hydrolysis Reaction
Disaccharide (Maltose) has water (H20) added to it.-OH from water is added to one monomer and the –H of water is added to the other monomer to break the disaccharide.

15. Carbohydrate Function
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy
Polysaccharides play various roles from energy storage (starch: plants and glycogen: animals) to structure (cellulose in plants).
Food for thought:  Why eat pasta dinner the night before the big game and a glucose packet during a marathon?

16. Lipids
Lipids are a very diverse group of molecules that are all hydrophobic and nonpolar ( do not interact with water= repel water).
Made mostly of C and H
Many lipids have fatty acids that can be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated: absence of double bonded carbon atoms which results in the lipid being solid at room temperature (like butter)
Unsaturated: presence of double bonded carbon atoms which results in the lipid being liquid at room temperature (like oil)

17. Saturated and Unsaturated Fats

18. Lipid Functions
protection of all cells (phospholipids of the cell membrane)
chemical signaling (steroids and hormones).
Cholesterol (most common type of steroid)-Provides rigidity to cell membrane and precursors to steroid compounds
Lipids are used for long term energy storage (body fat) and water proofing and insulation of organs/body – Triglycerides (cutin, suberin, waxes)

19. Name of lipid and basic components
Types of lipids
Name of lipid and basic components
Basic Structure
Triglyceride: 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails
Phospholipid: 1 hydrophilic/polar phosphate head and 2 hydrophobic fatty acids tails
Steroid (cholesterol): 3 hexagons and 1 pentagon all connected (4 rings) and a functional group (tail)

20. What kind of Fatty Acids are contained in the following lipids?
Saturated Fatty Acids A
Saturated Fatty Acids B
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids C

21. Dehydration in a Triglyceride
-OH of the fatty acid and the –H of glycerol are released (forming H20) and a triglyceride forms
What would hydrolysis look like?

22. Dehydration/Condensation Continued…

23. Hydrolysis in Triglycerides

24. Protein Structure
Proteins are made by linking amino acids (monomers) together using peptide bonds to make a polypeptide chain (polymer)
Dipeptides are 2 amino acids joined together

25. Protein Structure
All proteins are made from the same 20 amino acids (all amino acids have –NH2 and –COOH), each with different chemical properties.
Peptide bonds form as a result of a dehydration reaction between the –NH2 of one amino acid and the –COOH of another amino acid (releasing H2O).

26. Dehydration in Proteins
-OH of one amino acid and the –H of another amino acid are released (forming H20) and a peptide bond forms
What would hydrolysis look like?

27. Protein Function
Regulate cell processes, form bone and muscle, move substances in or out of cells, and are part of the immune system
Proteins can act as enzymes – biological catalysts for very specific chemical reactions inside cells/organisms.

28. Enzymes
Activation energy: energy required to start a chemical reaction
Enzymes are catalysts which lower the activation energy, thus speeding up reactions that would otherwise not occur
You have a huge amount of enzymes in your body!
Ex: lactase in your digestive systems breaks down lactose in dairy
Anytime you see an “ase” word, think ENZYME!

29. Activation Energy

30. Lock and Key
Each enzyme is used for a specific reaction because the enzyme has a specific active site
Substrate is the molecule on which enzymes act
A lock (enzyme) and a key (substrate) = Enzyme-Substrate Complex

31. Enzymes
While attached to the substrate, the enzyme causes a weakening of certain chemical bonds in the substrate molecule, resulting in a breakdown (hydrolysis) of the substrate into two smaller products. Example: If the substrate was a disaccharide then the products may be 2 monosaccharides

32. The enzyme is unaltered during the reaction and is free to catalyze the breakdown of another substrate molecule.

33. Nucleic Acids DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid “D” is for deoxyribose
RNA – ribonucleic acid
“R” is for ribose

34. Nucleotide Structure Monomer of a nucleic acid = Nucleotides
A nucleotide is made of:
a 5-carbon sugar
a phosphate
a nitrogen base
Guanine
Cytosine
Adenine
Thymine (only in DNA)
Uracil (only in RNA)

35. Nucleic Acid Structure
DNA = Double Helix (2 strands)
5-C sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate alternate the sides of the “ladder”
Nitrogen bases connect by hydrogen bonds between the “ladder” like the rungs
RNA = one strand

36. Nucleic Acid Function
Nucleic acid function: store/transmit genetic information of organisms

37. Dehydration in a Nucleic Acids
-OH of one nucleotide and the –H of another nucleotide are released (forming H20) and a nucleic acid forms
What would hydrolysis look like?
H20
-OH -H