1. Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science
Research Methods

2. Scientific Methods
- are a set of procedures used to gather, analyze, and interpret information.
- their purpose is to minimize error and Lead to dependable generalizations.

3. Critical Thinking - is the process of:
deciding what to believe and how to act
based on a careful evaluation of the evidence
and ruling out alternative explanations.

4. What makes a good theory?
1. Predictive accuracy—Can the theory reliably predict behavior?
2. Internal coherence—Are there logical inconsistencies between the theoretical ideas?

5. What makes a good theory?
3. Being economical—Does the theory include only what is necessary to explain the phenomenon in question?
4. Fertility—Does the theory generate research, and can it be used to explain a wide variety of behavior?

6. Research: Three basic techniques of data collection
Three basic techniques of data collection are:
self-reports (interviews, surveys, tests)
direct observations
archival information (records)

7. Research: Basic Methods
Observation
Case Study
Survey
Experimentation

8. Observational Research
Case study: in-depth analysis of a single subject
Naturalistic observation: investigating behavior in its natural environment
Laboratory observation

9. Advantages of Observational Research
Researchers can:
Watch behavior in its “wholeness,” providing the full context in which to understand it.
Record rare events that may never occur in a controlled laboratory environment.
Systematically record events previously observed only by nonscientists.
Observe events that would be too risky, dangerous, or unethical to create in the laboratory.
One advantage of case study research is that it involves in-depth analysis of a single subject.
Is the last line of text supposed to be bulleted?

10. Problems of Observational Research
Observation of events can alter the participants’ behavior and taint the data
Ethical problems involving invasion of others’ privacy
One problem with case study research is that researchers must be extremely cautious when generalizing from a single case to the entire population.
Says three but there are four bullets.

11. Survey Research
A survey is a structured set of questions or statements to measure people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavioral tendencies.

12. Survey Research
Questions that are too vague, misdirected or biased will not yield the intended information.
Questions asked to people who do not represent the population of interest will yield biased or incorrect results.

13. Survey Sampling Shere Hite Sampled 100,000 people
received 4500 returns
reported that 70 % of women were having affairs
(Other surveys found only 1/7)

14. The Scientific Method Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other

15. The Scientific Method Correlation Coefficient
Ranges from +1 to -1 (0=no relationship)
Shows strength & direction of relationship
Can be used to predict one variable from another

16. The Scientific Method
Correlation Coefficient cannot be used as evidence of causality!!
A caused B ?
B caused A ?
C caused both ?

17. Correlation and Causation
Three possible cause-effect relations
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause or
and

18. Correlational Research
The variables in correlational research are not controlled by the researcher.
However, the measures yield numbers that can be analyzed using correlational statistics.

19. Correlational Research
McGraw-Hill

20. High Positive Correlation

21. Negative Correlation

22. Positive Correlation

23. Low Negative Correlation

24. Zero Correlation

25. Correlation and Causation
Three possible cause-effect relations
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause or
and

26. Experimental Variables
Independent variable: the manipulated variable tested as the possible cause of changes in the other variable
Dependent variable: the variable whose measured differences or changes are considered to be the effect of the manipulated changes in the independent variable

27. All other important variables are controlled.
Experimental Research: Determination of Cause-Effect Relationships through manipulation & control
Experimenters manipulate one variable (independent)by exposing participants to contrasting levels, and then observe the effect on another variable (dependent)not manipulated.
All other important variables are controlled.

28. The Basic Elements in an Experiment

29. The Experiment Independent Variable Dependent Variable
manipulated (different in each group)
cause of the change in the dependent variable
Dependent Variable
measured effect
may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

30. Experimental Manipulation
Experimental Condition
exposes participants to the treatment version of the independent variable
Control Condition
Exposes participants to no treatment or a placebo version of the independent variable
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

31. Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
Purpose: to minimize the influence of preexisting differences on the different groups

32. Placebo Controls Placebo Placebo Effect
A treatment that looks like the real one, but lacking the active agent
Placebo Effect
any effect on behavior caused by a placebo, usually those caused from believing one has experienced genuine treatment

33. Double-blind Procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

34. Comparing Research Methods
Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing
record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing
occurring relationships; association, sometimes
to assess how well among survey
one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent
and effect more factors and using variable(s)
random assignment
to eliminate preexisting
differences among
subjects

35. The Scientific Method Replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances
usually with different subjects in different situations (by different researchers)