1. PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY Anisa Larassati, M.Ling
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Tlp :

2. Chapter i Introduction: Phonetics and phonology
There are 2 fields in linguistics concerned with pronunciation and sound, phonetics & phonology:
Phonetics:
Describing and analysing the sounds humans use in language in an objective way. It studies speech sounds as sounds, without regard to their function as signaling units of language.
Deals with the production, properties, an percetption of the speech sounds of human languages.
Articulatory phonetics: analyses which organs and muscles are used by speakers to produce speech. It is related with ‘physiology’
Acoustic phonetics: concerns with the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel in the air between a speaker’s mouth and listener’s ear. It deals among others with measuring the loudness, pitches and other natural characteristics of sounds. It is related with ‘physics’.
Auditory phonetics: focuses on the effect those sounds have when they reach the listener’s ear and brain.

3. Chapter i Introduction: Phonetics and phonology
Concerns with how speech sounds form patterns in particular language.
Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis
/ˌnjuːmə(ʊ)nəʊˌʌltrəˌmʌɪkrə(ʊ)ˈskɒpɪkˌsɪlɪkəʊvɒlˌkeɪnəʊˌkəʊnɪˈəʊsɪs/
Kipikikusikitishacho
Segmental: deals with spech sounds
Suprasegmental: concerns with larger units such as syllables, words, and intonation phrases.

4. Chapter 2: PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
2.1 SPEAKING IS A MATTER OF HABBIT
Learning the new sound system
Learning the new vocabulary items
Learning the ways of arranging foreing words into sntences
‘Habit interference’ :
people who learn a new language will meet with strong opposition from their old established habit. In trying to produce the foreign sounds, they tend to replace them with similar sounds they find in their native language. Example: Indonesian student
bow /bəʊ/  /b/ as in Kerbau

5. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.2. REASONS FOR PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS In English, it is obvious that the spelling and pronunciation of words do not match. It is therefore very confusing and misleading to se the spelling symbols of the Roman alphabet.

6. PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 2:
PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
The same spelling, different pronunciations
The diferent spellings, same pronunciation
Bone /bəʊn/, ryhmes with tone /təʊn/
Done /dʌn/, ryhmes with fun /fʌn/
Gone /ɡɒn/, ryhmes with rock /rɒk/
The spelling <one> can be pronounced as /əʊn/, /ʌn/, /ɒn/
Riff /rɪf/
Loaf /ləʊf/
Tough /tʌf/
Diferent spellings <ff>, <f>, <gh> are all pronounced as /f/

7. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.2.a. The existence of a given sound in the latter, which is not found in the former.
For instance, the word “thigh”
Thigh /θʌɪ/ /t/ or /s/ instead of pronouncing /ðaI/ or /saI/.
Other English sounds which are not found in Indonesian are, for instance, veal /viːl/, then /ðɛn/, joke /dʒəʊk/, she /ʃiː/, pleasure /ˈplɛʒə/, etc.

8. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.2.b. Sounds which have the same phonetics feature in both languages (English and Indonesia) but differ in their distributions.
For ex: /b/, /d/, /g/ voiced stop consonants
in English those stops occur at utterance initial, medial, and finial position.
for example: book, ago, sad
In Indonesian, however, they occur only at word initial and medial position, never at word final position.
For example: beras, kabar,.
In Indonesian orthography, the letters b, d, g are sometimes found at word final position.
For ex: Sebab, abad, grobag, but they pronounced voiceless stops, that is /p/, /t/, and /k/ respectively.

9. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.2.c. Similar sounds in the two languages, which have different variants or ‘allophones’.
Allophone is conditioned variant of a significant group of sounds which occurs in a fixed and predictable environment.
Both Indonesian and English have ‘voiceless stop consonants’ /p; t; k/.
The Indonesian stops have one variants
for ex:
/p/ in Pintu, apa, and sedap.

10. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
The English stop consonants have more than one variant. There are 2 variants in English:
Aspirated pronounced with a slight puff of breath as in
/phIl/, /theIk/, /khu:l/
Un-aspirated as in the words upper, better, and beckon.
2.2.d. Similar sounds in the two languages which differ only slightly in their phonetic features.
for example: no, may, bad, tie, now, she, chain, Jane, very, hard, etc.

11. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.2.e. Sounds that have the same qualities in both languages may constitute some learning problem if they occur in a cluster or sequence of sounds. For example: speak, spring, stand, street, sky, scream, twelfths, worlds.

12. CHAPTER 2: Pronunciation problems
2.3. NATURE OF PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
It concerns with the identification of the foreign sounds.
It has to do with the production of the foreign sounds by his organs of speech.
Ability in identifying and producing the foreign sounds involves not only sounds in isolation, but also sounds occurring in connected speech.
It concerns with the production of the so-called suprasegmental features (stress, length, pitch, and intonation).

13. CHAPTER 2: PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS
< > pointed brackets used to refer to a spelling
/ / slashes indicate that a speaker’s knowledge or mental representation is referred to; this is what phonology deals with.
[ ] square brackets indicate that an actual soud is being talked about, which is what phonetics is concerned with.
Italics are used when linguists write about words. Example: “oh”

14. CHAPTER 2: PRONUNCIATION PROBLEMS

15. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
3.1 Phonetic and Orthographic Writing
There are 2 ways of writing:
Picture writing/Ideographic writing.
for example: hieroglyphs.
Alphabetic writing.
Each character represents speech sounds.

16. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
Syllabery: A system in which each character represents a syllable. Alphabetic writing represents speech sounds in both Indonesia and English.
The most popular and well established way of representing speech sound is called conventional or orthographic writing.
for ex:
One symbol sometimes represents more than one sound, such as the letter a in English, which represents different sounds in different words.

17. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
Conversely, one sound may be represented by several symbols in orthographic writing.
For ex: can, key, chemistry, technique.
Phonetic writing represents speech sounds to show clearly and consistently the pronunciation of a given word.
for ex: /i:/ represents the vowel sound of the word ‘see’.

18. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
3.2. The use of Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription represents speech sound consistently.
Many exercises must be done in order to get familiar with phonetic symbols.

19. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
3.3. Broad and Narrow Transcription
There are two kinds of phonetic transcription:
Broad transcription: if a phonetic transcription does not take into account the differences of sounds, which are insignificant and are predictable in term of their environments.
For ex: /a/ is used to symbolize the fronted a in /ai/and the backed a in /au/.
2. Narrow transcription : a phonetic transcription which uses different symbols for minutely different sounds.

20. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
According to Lesley Jeffries (2006: )
there are also 2 kinds of transcription:
Broad transcription is the phonemically based system used for writing down speech sounds, concentrating on their contractive potential for making meaning rather than their phonetic detail. Normally in slashes: e.g. pyjamas might be transcribed broadly as /pIʤa:mez/

21. CHAPTER 3: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
2. Narrow Transcription is the phonetically based system used for writing down speech sounds, concentrating on their phonetic detail, rather than their contrastive (meaning – making) potential. Normally enclosed in square brackets: e.g. cattle might be transcribed narrowly as [kӕʔl]

22. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
4.1 Production of Speech Sounds
Speech sounds are sounds produced by the speech/ vocal organs, which include the mouth and respiratory organs.
Respiratory organs
Parts of respiratory organs
Speech sounds are produced by a moving air column. Those are
in-going air ingressive sounds
out-going air egressive sounds

23. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Speech sounds used by human beings in speaking are mostly latter type, instead of ingressive sounds.
Speech sounds are produced only when there is some interruption of the out-going air. The part of vocal organ which carries out of this interruption is called articulators.
We we breathe restfully, the air goes in and out uninterupptedly, and thus no speech sound is produced.

24. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
4.2 Sub-division of Speech Organs
The classification of speech sounds:
the basis of the manner in which the out-going air is interrupted by the articulators.
The basis of what articulators are used to obstruct the out-going air.

26. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Sub-division of Speech Organs
Initiator/Respiratory system : the speech organ that sets the air into motion for the production of speech sounds.
The main initiator is lungs because most speech sounds are produced by pulmonic air. i.e. air set into motion by the lungs.
Phonator refers to the vocal cords in the larynx, which are used to produced speech sound called ‘voice’.

27. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
The vocal cords are two elastic membranes situated horizontally in the larynx which can be made to assume various positions. In normal breathing the two vocal cords are widely separated, and thus allowing the air to go in and out freely. They can be made to be tight contact with each other, that is, completely closed, so that no air can pass out through the larynx.
For examples: when someone wants to gather his strength in lifting heavy weights, at childbirth, and other activities that need considerable bodily strength.

28. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Glottal stop is produced by passing the air out through the larynx . This completely closed position of the vocal cords produces a plosive sound, called ‘glottal stop’. Meanwhile, when the air is forced to go out through the small opening between the two vocal cords, it causes them to open and close successively; in other words, it causes them to vibrate. It is this successive opening and closing or the vibration of the two vocal cords that produces the sound called “voice”.
for example: sound /k/ in katak the initial k represents a velar stop, while the final k represents a glottal stop //.
Button /ˈbʌt(ə)n/  /ˈbʌ(ə)n/

29. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
In between the position for the production of a glottal stop and that for restful breathing the two vocal cords can assume a position for the production of the so-called glottal fricative /h/.
For example: the initial sound in the English word ‘house’, and ‘whisper’.
For the glottal fricative the two vocal cords are a bit closer than for restful breathing, while for whisper they are put even closer to each other, but not close enough so as to produce voice.
Glottis: the space between the two vocal cords.

31. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Articulators: the speech organs that are used to obstruct the out-going air in the production of speech sounds.
Articulators are segmented into 2 types:
Movable articulators: the lips, the tongue, the uvula, and the vocal cords.
Unmovable articulators: the teeth, the teeth ridge, and the hard palate.

32. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
There are 2 positions of the articulators in the mouth:
Upper margin : the upper lip, the upper-teeth, the teeth ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate, and the uvula.
Lower margin: the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tongue.
For the sake easy reference the tongue is divided Into the following parts: the tip or apex, the blade, the front and the back of the tongue, the central part of the tongue includes a small part of the front and the back of the tongue.

34. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Description of the Speech Organs
The teeth ridge is that part of the roof of the mouth exactly behind the upper-teeth and is convex in facing the tongue.
The hard palate is the bony part of the roof of the mouth behind the teeth ridge, and in concave in shape facing the tongue.
The soft palate is the remaining fleshy part of the roof of the mouth behind the hard palate, whose extremity is called the uvula.

35. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
4. Articulation
There are 2 types of articulation:
Point of articulation or place of obstruction: the point where two articulators are touching or almost touching each other for the obstruction of the out-going air. For example:
Labio-labial or bilabial sound, if the two lips are used to obstruct the out going-air.
Labiodental, if the point of articulation is between the lips and the teeth.
Type of articulation or manner of obstruction: the ways in which the out-going air is obstructed.

36. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
For example,
If the two articulators are drawn tightly to each other to obstruct the out- going air, the sound so produced is called a plosive sound or stop.
When they are almost touching each other so that the air is forced to pass out through the small opening, the sound so produced is called a fricative sound.

37. CHAPTER 4 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
Resonant is another important type of sound.
A resonant is a sound produced principally by means of vibrating the vocal cords
The function of the pharynx, the mouth, and the nose is only to modify it.
These three cavities, especially the mouth cavity, act as resonating chambers, which strengthen the sound already produced by the vibration of the vocal cords.
Different sounds like a, I, u are caused by different shapes and sizes of the mouth or oral cavities.

38. 3. Cross-section Diagram of the Speech Organs

41. Chapter 5 SEGMENTALS and SUPRASEGMENTALS
Two Speech Features
Segmental features, or just segmentals, which refer to sound units arranged in a sequential order. For example: ‘good heavens’ has 9 segmental features.
Suprasegmental features, or just suprasegmentals, which refer to such features as stress, length, intonation, and other features that always accompany the production of segmentals.

42. Chapter 5 SEGMENTALS and SUPRASEGMENTALS
2. Differences Between the Two Speech Features
Segmentals can be studied in isolation
Suprasegmentals, on the other hand, cannot be studied in isolation.

43. CHAPTER 7 Classification of Vowels
All vowel sounds are principally produced by the vibration of the vocal cords, which are situated in the larynx.
Three variables for describing vowels
Which part of the tongue is raised (tip, center, back).
The degree of raising the tongue (high, mid, low).
The position of the two lips (rounded, unrounded).

44. CHAPTER 7 Classification of Vowels
FRONT, CENTRAL, AND BACK VOWELS
Tongue is conveniently divided into three parts:
the front, the center, and the back of the tongue.
Front vowel is when the front of the tongue is raised to modify the sound already produced in the larynx, the vowel sound so produced is called a front vowel.
Central vowel is when the central part of the tongue is raised, the vowel sound so produced.
Back vowel is when the back of the tongue is raised, the vowel sound so produced. Back vowels are /u/, /U/, /ͻ:/, /ͻ/

45. CHAPTER 7 Classification of Vowels
Vowel is a voiced sound during the production of which the air goes through the mouth along the middle part of the tongue in a continuous stream without meeting such a narrowing in the mouth as would result in an audible friction.

46. CHAPTER 7 Classification of Vowels
PURE VOWELS VS DIPHTHONGS
Pure vowel is a vowel in the production of which the organs of speech remain in a given position for an appreciable period of time. For example: he, who, far
A diphthong is a vowel sound in which there is an intentional glide made from one vowel position to another vowel position and which is produced in one single impulse of breath. For example: no, may, high, boy /bɔɪ/, etc.

47. CHAPTER 8 Diphthongs
A diphthong is a kind of vowel sound with a special feature, that there is a deliberate glide made from one vowel position to another vowel position, and which is produced in one syllable.
The term ‘glide’ here refers to the transitional sounds heard when the speech organs move from one position for a given sound to that for another.

48. CHAPTER 8 Diphthongs
In describing the articulatory movements of the speech organs in producing a diphthong we mention only starting vowel sound in the direction of which the glide is made.
Although a diphthong is normally represented in phonetic writing by two vowel symbols, this does not follow that both vowel sounds are equally syllabic.
When the sequence of two vowel sounds is produced with two impulses of breath, it is not a diphthongs but it is said to be dissyllabic.

49. CHAPTER 8 Diphthongs
Two vowels produced with one impulse of breath also implies that only one of those two vowel sounds is louder or more sonorous than the other. In other words, only one of the two is syllabic, while the other vowel sound is non syllabic.
A diphthongs in which the first element is louder than the second element is called falling diphthong. For ex: eI, oU, aI, aU because in those diphthongs the first element is more sonorous than the second element.

50. CHAPTER 8 Diphthongs
A diphthongs in which the second element is syllabic is a raising diphthongs.
Direction and Nature of Glide
There are 2 direction for diphthongs
Closing diphthongs: when the movement of the tongue is carried out from the position of and open vowel to that of a closer vowel. (eI, aU, aI, oU, ͻI)
Centering diphthongs: when the movement of the tongue is carried out towards the central vowel /ә/. (Iә, Uә, εә, ͻә/

51. CHAPTER 8 Diphthongs
In the closing diphthongs, the positions of the second vowels are closer than those of the first elements.
The diphthongs /eI/ and /oU/ differ from the other three diphthongs /aI, aU, and ͻI/in that their glides are shorter than glides of the later.
/eI/ and /oU/ are called short diphthongs or half diphthongs
/aI, aU, ͻI/ are called long diphthongs or full diphthongs.

57. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
Consonant is sounds which are not vowels or speech sounds made by the stopping breath of the mouth cavity.
The characteristics of consonants:
All voiceless sounds, i.e. sounds in which the vocal cords are not in vibration, are consonants for example: /s,f,θ,k,h/
All sounds in which the air goes out through the nose (nasal sounds) are consonants e.g /m,n,ɳ/

58. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
All sounds in which the air goes out through the sides of the tongue (lateral sounds) are consonants, e.g. /l/
All sounds in which there is an interruption of closing and opening of their passage are consonants, e.g. /r/
All sounds in which the air meets with a complete stoppage or complete obstruction somewhere in the mouth or speech tract are consonants, there are called plosive sounds or stop e.g. /p,b,d,t,k,g,,/

59. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
6. All sounds in which the air meets with a partial obstruction somewhere in the speech tract or mouth, so that a frictional sound is heard, are consonants e.g. /f,v,s,z,θ,,,,h/.
7. All sounds which are not syllabic are also considered as consonants e.g. /y,w/ and are usually called semivowels.

60. CHAPTER 9 Consonants Ways of Producing Consonants
It is characterized mainly by some obstruction above the larynx especially in the mouth cavity.
Ways of Producing Vowels
In producing vowel sounds the main obstruction takes place in the larynx, where the air is forced to pass out through a small opening between the two vocal cords and cause them to vibrate.

61. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
In general speech sounds are produced when there is some obstruction made by the organs of speech against the out-going air somewhere along the speech tract.
The wide variety of consonants that may be produced by a speaker is dependent upon the place and the manner of obstructing the air.

62. CHAPTER 9 Consonants CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS
Consonants are commonly classified on the basis of the following 3 variables:
The place of obstruction. The obstruction may be formed by the two lips, or by the tip of the tongue and upper teeth.
The manner of obstruction/ type of articulation.
The activity of the vocal cords. Where the obstruction of the air above the larynx is accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords or not

63. CHAPTER 9 Consonants TYPES OF CONSONANTS BASED ON PLACE OF OBSTRUCTION
Bilabial consonants: in which the obstruction is form by the two lips
Labio – dental: in which the air is obstructed by the lower lip against the upper teeth.
Apico – dental: in which the air is obstructed by the tip of the tongue and upper teeth.
Alveolar: in which the obstruction is formed by some part of the tongue and teeth ridge or gum

64. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
5. Palatal: in which the air is obstructed by raising the front of the tongue in the direction of hard palate. 6. Velar: in which the obstruction of the air is formed by raising the back of the tongue against the soft palate 7. Glottal: in which the obstruction of the air is formed at the glottis, that is, either by putting the two vocal cords in close contactor by separating them.

65. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
Types of consonants based on manner of obstruction
Plosive/ stop consonants
Affricative consonants
Fricative consonants
Nasal consonants
Lateral consonants
Tap/Flap/Rolled consonants
Semi – vowel / glide consonants

66. CHAPTER 9 Consonants
Types of consonants based on the activity of vocal cord
Voiced : when the production of a consonant is said to be voiced.
Voiceless: when the production of a consonant is said to be voiceless.