Linda Jo Calloway Pace University Qualitative Research

References Calloway and Knapp (1995) Using Grounded Theory to Interpret Interviews Calloway and Knapp Hughes, J.A., D. Randall and D. Shapiro (1993), "From ethnographic record to systems design: some experiences from the field". Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 1 (3): Kuhn, T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN The Structure of Scientific RevolutionsISBN Michael Myers, Summary of Qualitative Methodshttp://

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Is Science all there is? Admission to the fraternity of “science” requires a scientific methodology: Ask the question Identify the important factors Formulate a hypothesis Collect relevant information Test the hypothesis Work with it Reconsider the theory Ask new questions

Other forms of knowledge Authoritarian knowledge: Refers to insights form gurus popes, political leaders, religious figures (the position of the knowing person). (Congress interpreting the constitution) Mystic knowledge: From supernatural sources (spirits, gods and goddesses). Revealed knowledge: Moses and the ten commandments Rationalistic: Depends on rules of logic. True in principle, and logically possible and permissible. Aristotelian {Euclidean Geometry} Intuitive/divination: From cards, entrails, palms, horoscopes, extra-sensory perceptions

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies What is a methodology? A branch of logic dealing with the application of the principles of science in the production of knowledge. A Methodology is a set of principles and procedures. Principle: Observe phenomena Procedure: Experiment, Participant Observation. The application of these principles in an organized way exists within a paradigm.

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Planning your research project

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies 80% through the actual project

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Research exists within a paradigm Paradigm: A set of assumptions about the world, and about what constitutes proper topics of inquiry and techniques of inquiry (after Kuhn: see ; Kuhn, T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN ) Structure of Scientific RevolutionsISBN Includes a set of exemplar problems and solutions in the field.

Characteristics of Quantitative Designs The results are in numbers Takes place in the laboratory or controlled field Specific hypotheses are tested Researcher’s views are irrelevant; results are “unbiased” Data collected is reduced to numerics One interpretation is obtained.

Characteristics of qualitative designs 1. The researcher must attempt to bracket his or her own preconceptions 2. Analysis is done with symbols like words and charts and pictures, not numbers 3. Many interpretations of the material are possible, but the interpretation provided must be compelling within a theoretical frame (political, artistic, database, medical) 4. Researchers role is to gain a holistic view 5. Important to discover how the insiders view their motives, situations, actions

Some history Came about to enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena Action research, case study, ethnography, grounded theory Culture is:

Culture: is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and influences perception and behavior -- an abstract "mental blueprint" or "mental code." Must be studied "indirectly" by studying behavior, customs, material culture (artifacts, tools, technology), language, etc. 1) Learned. Process of learning one's culture is called enculturation. 2) Shared by the members of a society. No "culture of one.”

Objective vs. subjective General laws vs. concern with particular situation (mothetic vs. idiographic) Etic vs. emic

Philosophical perspectives Positivist someone who emphasizes observable facts and excludes metaphysical speculation about origins or ultimate causes Interpretive subject to interpretation from more than one perspective Critical social critique, where the restrictive and alienating conditions of status quo are brought to light.

Action Research (Rapoport, 1970 p499 : see AIS website Aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework.

Case Study Empirical inquiry Investigates phenomena in the natural setting Boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Calloway and Knapp)

Ethnography Comes from social and cultural anthropology. Researcher spends considerable time in the field Immersion Hughes, Randall and Shapiro: London Air Traffic Control Hughes, J.A., D. Randall and D. Shapiro (1993), "From ethnographic record to systems design: some experiences from the field". Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 1 (3):

Grounded Theory Inductive method of Theory Discovery Specifically aimed at theory development by organizing data into a set of interlinked categories that are explained and defined by the data within each category. Calloway and KnappCalloway and Knapp (1995) Using Grounded Theory to Interpret Interviews

Types of data collection Collect empirical materials Interviews Observations Archives Documents

Modes of data analysis So far concerned primarily with textual analysis, but not any more. Hermeneutics: Understanding the text as a whole and the interpretation of its parts. Examples?

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Analysis QuantitativeQualitative

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Analyses Quantitative investigations use statistics, logic and mathematics to analyze data. Statistics Test results

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Qualitative investigations use symbols, usually words, to analyze data Occurrences are not counted Measures if any are nominal (named) or ordinal (ranked) Results are often categories and relationships among categories. Results can be narratives, typical scenarios, metaphor

Semiotics Signs and Symbols

Narrative and Metaphor Stories Metaphors Scenarios Critical Incidents

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Methodologies usually use Positivist and/or Interpretive analysis methods Positivist Results are expected to be objective. One interpretation of the data is drawn. Results are expected to be independent of the observer Interpretive Results are interpretations of the phenomena as dictated by a theoretical perspective. Many interpretations are possible. Both the observer and the theoretical perspective influence the interpretation.

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Emphases of qualitative studies Early phases of research process Literature synthesis Model building, theory building Conceptualizations of high-tech information Handling of information sources with low warranty

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Comparing positivist and non-positivist assumptions Positivist Epistemology: Knowledge is independent of the researcher Ontology: Reality is objective Boundary: Boundaries are clear Context: Context must be controlled Non-positivist Epistemology: Knowledge is uncertain and has a subjective element Ontology: Reality is subjective Boundary: Boundaries are unclear Context: Context must be discovered

Mainly Quantitative Language of research; hypotheses Hypotheses translate a general problem statement into a form of statement that can be tested using a research method: I wonder if…. If x then y I wonder if this size type can be read from the back of the room? If type font is 36 then 20/20 vision student can read at 98% accuracy from back of the room. I wonder if software theft by employees is related to department size? As department size goes up, theft of software goes up

Mainly Quantitative Language of research; a good hypothesis Posits a definite relationship in a declarative form Posits an expected relationship Reflects a theory Is brief and to the point Is testable…..

Mainly Quantitative Language of research; hypotheses, continued Null hypothesis Posits a statement that two things are equivalent, and then sees if it’s false. There is no relationship between attendance in this course and your grade There is no relationship between knowing networking and getting a job as a project leader in IS The research hypothesis Poses a statement of difference based on one or more factors User satisfaction measures increase as time involved in systems analysis and design increases Also, hypotheses can be directional or non directional

Language of Research, variables Variables: a class of measures that can have different values: height, weight, gender, time of day, amount, country of birth, continents, days of the week………Think entity/attribute Variables are classified according to what their function is at the time Independent: the value is controlled by the researcher Dependent: the value depends on the setting of the independent variable

Language of research, variables cont. Independent variable alpha has an effect on dependent variable omega Independent variable nation-of-birth has an effect on dependent variable mother-tongue Structure of existing development methodology has effect on success of ERP

Significance A relationship is significant if it does not appear by chance (within a certain likelihood). The risk that what you see is caused by some unforeseen or unknown factors(s)

Samples and populations Samples come from populations. A sample is a certain selection of members in the population Depending on the method of sampling, the sample more or less represents the population Literature review. Recent? Relevant? Complete? Problem and purpose: Can you understand the problem and is the purpose clearly stated? Is its importance justified? Hypotheses or questions: Are they clearly stated? Is the association among variables clear? Is the hypothesis testable? Methodology: Is it clear how the study was conducted, what the variables are? Sample: Is the sampling method clearly stated and representative of the population?? Results and discussion: Relates the results to the review of literature? Are the comments consistent with the results? Does it provide closure?

Research Designs (Methodologies) The methodology or research design situates the researcher in the empirical world and connects the research questions to the data. Methodology: What procedures and processes will be followed, including the reasoning, the theory, the “subjects” being studied, the tools used to analyze the data. A methodology is Qualitative, quantitative or combination. Population: The entire set of possible subjects. A subject can be an individual, a group, an entity like a University, a sort of company, like a member of the Fortune 500, adopters of ERP….. Sample: the particular subject or selection of subjects about which information will be gathered. Data: The definition of the information that is gathered—NOT the information itself Analysis: What method is used to understand the data? Statistics? Generalization? Categorization? Ad Hoc summary?

April 7, 2006 Using Research Methodologies Real Bank

Ethics: continued Confidentiality Sharing results Debriefing Sharing benefits