RFP gene = Red Fluorescent Protein GFP gene = Green Fluorescent Protein

Let’s Back Up Let’s talk about the architecture of organic molecules…… Isomer = the same molecular formula but different structures SO different properties.

Isomers 1. Structural isomers –differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms. Formula C 4 H 10

Isomers 2. Geometric Isomers –differ in their spatial arrangement but have the SAME covalent bonds. Double bond makes them more inflexible-cannot rotate freely like in single bond! (variation in arrangement around a double bond)

Isomers 3.Enantiomers –variation in spatial arrangement around asymmetric carbon. Result: molecules that are mirror images of each other (Left and Right Handed). Usually one is active and the other inactive in the body. (arrangement of the four spots around asymmetric carbon) Important for pharmaceutical companies?

Enantiomer

Isomers Enantiomers –Important for pharmaceutical companies? Why? Example: Thalidomide-ease pregnancy discomfort Drug mixture of 2 enantiomers 1 enantiomers-sedative Other- side effects – birth defects

LIPIDS diverse group of organic compounds: grouped together because HYDROPHOBIC insoluble in water will dissolve in nonpolar solvents not a true polymer; still a macromolecule (C and H) include: 1.Fats 2.Phospholipids 3.Steroids

Lipids 1.Fats (Triglycerides) –G–Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids –S–Saturated = No Double Bonds (solid) –U–Unsaturated = Double Bonds (liquid) Organic Compounds: Lipids: Fats OH Ester Bonds

1. FATS Composed of: – glycerol (3-carbon alcohol; each with a Hydroxyl group) – fatty acid (contains carboxyl group; long hydrocarbon chain or “tail”) the nonpolar C-H bonds make the chain hydrophobic and insoluble in water

Fatty acids may vary in # of carbon atoms (usually even #) Each of glycerol’s 3 hydroxyl groups can bond to a fatty acid by an ester linkage producing a fat. (resulting in triacylglycerol, or a triglyceride)

Lipids 2.Phospholipids –G–Glycerol with Phosphate Head + 2 Fatty Acid Chains –A–Amphiphilic (“Both” “lover”) Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail –F–Forms 2 layers in water –M–Makes up cell membranes Organic Compounds: Lipids: Phospholipids Phosphate Glycerol Fatty Acids

clusters in water in patterns (e.g. micelle, bilayer) shows ambivalent behavior towards water (tails are hydrophobic and heads are hydrophilic)

Organic Compounds: Lipids: Steroids Lipids OH O Testosterone HO O Estrogen 3.Steroids –L–Lipids whose Carbon Skeleton consists of 4 fused rings –I–Includes: Hormones Cholesterol –M–Makes up cell membranes HO OH O O

Biotechnology To extract DNA and other organelles from a cell, the phospholipid bilayer must be dissolved. This is achieved by the use of detergents which disrupts the hydrocarbon tails.

I. Monosaccharides = single/simple sugars major nutrients for cells glucose is most common (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) store energy in their chemical bonds which is harvested by cellular respiration *examples: glucose, ribose, galactose

Classification of Monosaccharides Catorized depending on: 1.Location of carbonyl group either Aldose (Aldehyde sugar) or Ketose (Ketone sugar) 2.Size of carbon skeleton ~3-7 carbons long (most form rings in solution) 3. Isomers – spatial arrangement around asymmetrical carbon ***Shape = function /interaction in body!

Classification of Monosaccharides Aldose Structural Isomer of glucose=Ketose

II. Polysaccharides = hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides formed by linking monomers dehydration synthesis (condensation) reactions Monomers held together by covalent bonds called glycosidic linkages

Condensation or Hydrolysis? Glycosidic Linkage

Condensation or Hydrolysis? Disaccharide

A. Examples of energy storage polysaccharides: Starch = glucose polymers in plants (amylose/amylopectin) Glycogen = glucose polymer in animals

LE 5-6 Chloroplast Starch Mitochondria Glycogen granules 0.5 µm 1 µm Amylose Starch: a plant polysaccharide Amylopectin Glycogen Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

IN PLANTS

Digestion = Hydrolysis Difference in most carbohydrates is how the glucose monomers are connected!

Gycogen in liver cells: stained red

B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides: cellulose = major structural component of plant cell walls that cannot be digested by most organisms because of missing digestive enzyme chitin = forms exoskeletons of arthropods

B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides: chitin =

Know the difference between the 5-carbon sugars!!!

Biotechnology Use glucose as food source for cell cultures.

Biotechnology Carbs also affect DNA purifications in plant cells because they are too sticky