Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 13 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood

Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 13.1 What personality changes take place during Erikson’s stage of industry versus inferiority? 13.2 Describe school-age children’s self-concept and self- esteem, and discuss factors that affect their achievement- related attributions. 13.3 Cite changes in the expression and understanding of emotion in middle childhood. 13.4 Describe changes in moral understanding during middle childhood, including children’s understanding of diversity and inequality.

Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 13.5 How do peer sociability and friendship change in middle childhood? 13.6 Describe major categories of peer acceptance and ways to help rejected children. 13.7 What changes in gender-stereotyped beliefs and gender identity occur during middle childhood? 13.8 How do parent–child communication and sibling relationships change in middle childhood? 13.9 How do children fare in lesbian and gay families and in never-married, single-parent families?

Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 13.10 What factors influence children’s adjustment to divorce and blended family arrangements? 13.11 How do maternal employment and life in dual-earner families affect children’s development? 13.12 Cite common fears and anxieties in middle childhood. 13.13 Discuss factors related to child sexual abuse, its consequences for children’s development, and its prevention and treatment. 13.14 Cite factors that foster resilience in middle childhood.

Erikson’s Theory: Industry vs. Inferiority Industry: developing a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks Industry combines several developments of middle childhood: Positive but realistic self-concept Pride in accomplishment Moral responsibility Cooperative participation with agemates Inferiority: pessimism and lack of confidence in one’s ability to do things well

Self-Concept in Middle Childhood Self-concept is refined and organized into stable psychological dispositions. Perspective-taking skills are crucial for developing self-concept based on personality traits. Children form an ideal self that they use to evaluate actual self.

Influences on Self-Concept Cognitive development influences structure of self. Cognitive capacities and feedback from others influence content of self-concept. Perspective-taking skills (ability to distinguish others’ viewpoints from one’s own) improve. Family and community support are important. Content of self-concept depends on culture: Asian parents stress harmonious interdependence. Western parents emphasize independence and self- assertion.

Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood differentiates and adjusts to more realistic level. becomes hierarchically structured. Four broad self-evaluations: academic competence social competence physical/athletic competence physical appearance

Hierarchical Structure of Self-Esteem in Mid-Elementary School Years Figure 13.1: Hierarchical structure of self-esteem in the mid-elementary school years Figure 13.1 Photos from left to right: © Ellen B. Senisi; © Tim Pannell/Corbis; © Mitch Wojnarowicz/The Image Works; © Radius Images/Photolibrary

Influences on Self-Esteem Cultural values Gender-stereotyped beliefs Child-rearing practices: Authoritative parenting builds self-esteem. Controlling parenting undermines self-esteem. Achievement-related attributions

Achievement-Related Attributions Mastery-oriented attributions: Attribution of successes to ability Incremental view of ability (belief that it can be improved through effort) Focus on learning goals Learned helplessness: Attribution of failure to ability and success to luck Fixed view of ability (belief that it cannot be changed) Focus on performance goals

Influences on Achievement-Related Attributions Person praise vs. process praise Teachers’ messages: emphasis on learning vs. grades Adult feedback: gender differences Cognitive development: more realistic view of abilities Cultural values

Fostering a Mastery-Oriented Approach Attribution retraining: teaches children to attribute success to effort and strategy use. encourages children to focus on individual improvement more than grades. is best begun in middle childhood. Prevention of learned helplessness: Provision of meaningful tasks Parent and teacher encouragement Private performance evaluations, providing constructive feedback Small classes, providing individualized support for mastery and accommodation for differences in learning styles

Emotional Development in Middle Childhood Self-conscious emotions—pride and guilt: Pride and guilt become clearly governed by personal responsibility. Children experience self-conscious emotions even when no adult is present. Pride motivates children to take on further challenges. Guilt prompts them to make amends and strive for self-improvement. Emotional understanding: Ability to explain emotion by referring to internal states Appreciation of mixed emotions

Emotional Self-Regulation Coping with stress: problem-centered vs. emotion- centered coping Emotional self-efficacy: Feeling of being in control of one’s emotional experience Fosters favorable self-image, optimistic outlook Cultural influences: Hindu emphasis on control of emotional behavior vs. Buddhist emphasis on maintaining calm, peaceful disposition Western emphasis on personal rights, self-expression

Moral Development Social conventions Conventions with vs. without clear purpose Consideration of intentions and context of violations Moral rules Matters of personal choice Recognition of areas of personal choice as well as limits on choice

Understanding Individual Rights Children typically challenge adult authority within the personal domain. Notions of personal choice enhance children’s moral understanding. Older school-age children place limits on individual choice. typically favor kindness and fairness when faced with conflicting concerns.

Understanding Diversity and Inequality Children absorb prevailing societal attitudes, associating power and privilege with white people, inferior status with people of color. Children pick up information about group status from implicit messages in their surroundings. When authority figures confer status distinctions, children may form biased attitudes.

In-Group and Out-Group Biases: Development of Prejudice By age 7 or 8, both majority and minority children express in-group favoritism. Around the same time, white children’s prejudice against out-group members often weakens. Extent to which children hold biases depends on personal/situational factors: Fixed view of personality traits Overly high self-esteem Social world in which people are sorted into groups

Ways of Reducing Prejudice Intergroup contact in which racially and ethnically different children have equal status work toward common goals become personally acquainted are expected by authority figures to interact Long-term contact and collaboration among neighborhood, school, and community groups Inducing children to view traits as changeable

Peer Groups Peer groups Peer culture form on basis of proximity and similarity. adopt similar dress and behavior. Peer culture involves specialized vocabulary, dress code, place to “hang out.” often involves exclusion of peers who deviate. may be characterized by relational aggression.

Friendship in Middle Childhood Friendship becomes more complex and psychologically based. Trust is the defining feature of friendship. Friendships are more selective. High-quality friendships are fairly stable. Impact of friendships depends on qualities of friends: kindness and compassion vs. aggression and hostile interaction

Peer Acceptance Likability: extent to which child is viewed as worthy social partner Categories of peer acceptance: Popular children: popular-prosocial, popular- antisocial Rejected children: rejected-aggressive, rejected- withdrawn Controversial children Neglected children Average children

Helping Rejected Children Coaching, modeling, and reinforcing positive social skills Training in perspective taking and social problem solving Interventions focusing on parent–child interaction

Peer Victimization: Bullies and Their Victims About 20% of children are bullies; about 25% are repeatedly victimized. About 20–40% of youths have experienced “cyberbullying.” Approaches to reducing bullying: Change victimized children’s negative opinions of themselves and help them acquire social skills. Change youth environments to promote prosocial attitudes and behaviors.

Gender Typing in Middle Childhood Gender stereotyping is well-established by age 5. extends to personality traits and academic subjects. Gender-stereotype flexibility increases dramatically from age 7 on. is less pronounced for boys than for girls. Sex-segregated peer associations strengthen during middle childhood. continue to contribute powerfully to gender typing.

Gender Identity and Behavior Gender identity expands to include gender typicality: degree to which child feels similar to others of same gender. gender contentedness: degree to which child feels comfortable with his/her gender assignment. felt pressure to conform to gender roles: degree to which child feels that others disapprove of his/her gender-related traits.

Family Influences in Middle Childhood Parents: Coregulation: letting children take charge of moment- by-moment decision making Benefits of authoritative parenting strategies Siblings: Rivalry Companionship, assistance, emotional support Only children: Higher self-esteem, academic achievement

Lesbian and Gay Families About 20–35% of lesbians and 5–15% of gay couples are parents. Lesbian/gay parents are as committed to and effective at parenting as heterosexual parents. Children of same-sex and opposite-sex parents develop similarly. A major concern of lesbian/gay parents is that their children will be stigmatized by parents’ sexual orientation.

Parental Pressure for Gender-Role Conformity and Children’s Sexual Questioning: Lesbian vs. Heterosexual Families Figure 13.5: Reports of parental pressure for gender-role conformity and of sexual questioning by 8- to 12-year-olds of lesbian and heterosexual parents Figure 13.5 (Based on Bos & Sandfort, 2010.)

Never-Married Single-Parent Families About 40% of U.S. births are to single mothers: More than double the percentage in 1980 Steady decline in teenage parenthood since early 1990s Especially common among African-American young women Increases financial hardship, adjustment problems in children

Divorce Rates: International Comparisons Figure 13.6: Divorce rates in 13 industrialized nations Figure 13.6 (Based on U.S. Census Bureau, 2014b.)

Consequences of Parental Divorce Immediate consequences: Instability, conflict, drop in income Parental stress, disorganized family life Affected by children’s age, temperament, sex Long-term consequences: Improved adjustment after two years More problems among boys, children with difficult temperaments Affected by extent of father’s involvement

Helping Families Through Divorce Divorce mediation increases out-of-court settlements and parents’ cooperation in child rearing. Parent education programs encourage parents to resolve disputes. Joint custody grants each parent equal say in important child-rearing decisions. Child support helps relieve financial strain.

Blended Families Mother–stepfather: Father–stepmother: The most common type of blended family. Boys tend to adjust more rapidly than girls, who have more difficulty with custodial mother’s remarriage. Older children and adolescents show more problems. Father–stepmother: Father’s remarriage often reduces contact with biological children. Negative reaction to custodial father’s remarriage is common. Positive interactions between girls and stepmothers gradually increase.

Maternal Employment and Child Development Benefits (when mothers enjoy work and remain committed to parenting): higher self-esteem positive family and peer relations fewer gender stereotypes better grades more father involvement Drawbacks (when mother’s employment is stressful): less time for children risk of ineffective parenting

Support for Employed Parents and Their Families Father’s participation in child-rearing responsibilities Part-time work or flexible schedules Job sharing On-site child care Paid leave when children are ill Equal pay and employment opportunities for women

Child Care for School-Age Children Self-care children regularly look after themselves during after-school hours. Self-care increases with age and with SES. Implications depend on children’s maturity and how they spend their time. Before age 8 or 9, most children need supervision. “After-care” programs offering academic assistance and enrichment activities have special value for low-SES children.

Fears and Anxieties in Middle Childhood Fears of the dark, thunder and lightning, and supernatural beings persist. Additional fears include personal harm, academic failure, injuries and death, peer rejection. Phobias are intense, unmanageable fears. School refusal: Age 5–7 : fear of maternal separation Age 11–13 : fear of particular aspects of school Harsh living conditions contribute to anxieties.

Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence When war is temporary, most children do not show long-term difficulties. Chronic danger can impair psychological functioning. Parental affection and reassurance are best protection against lasting problems. International organizations aid children in war-torn regions.

Child Sexual Abuse Characteristics of victims More often female Most reported in middle childhood Characteristics of abusers Usually male Often a parent or known by a parent Consequences Adjustment: anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, anger/hostility Behavior: sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, suicidal reactions, substance abuse, delinquency Prevention and treatment Prevention: education Treatment: long-term therapy

Children’s Eyewitness Testimony Age differences: School-age children give more accurate, detailed accounts. Older children are more resistant to misleading questions. Even preschoolers can give accurate accounts if interviewed properly. Suggestibility: Questioners may lead or pressure witnesses. Long delays, biased interviewing, and stereotyping of the accused can lead to false information. Interventions: “Court schools” to prepare child witnesses Unbiased, open-ended questions; warm, supportive interview tone Methods to protect children from emotional trauma or later punishment

Resources That Foster Resilience Personal: easygoing temperament; above-average intelligence; favorable self-esteem; pleasure in mastery; good emotional self- regulation Family: warm, trusting relationship with a parent; authoritative child rearing; positive discipline; supportive sibling relationships School: teachers who are warm, helpful, and stimulating; lessons in tolerance, respect; extracurricular activities that strengthen skills Community: high-quality after-school programs; adult who is a positive coping model; stability of neighborhood and services; youth groups that promote prosocial behavior

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