Assumes that events are governed by some lawful order Scientific Research Assumes that events are governed by some lawful order

Goals of the Scientific Enterprise Measurement and description: the first goal of psychology is to develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behavior clearly and precisely. Understanding and prediction: To evaluate their understanding, scientists make and test predictions called hypotheses.

Definitions A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are any measurable conditions, events characteristics or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.

Steps in a Scientific Investigation 5 systematic steps to consider Step 1: Formulate a testable hypothesis: Normally expressed as predictions, they spell out how changes in one variable will be related to changes in another variable. To be testable, scientific hypotheses must be precisely formulated and variable clearly defined in operational definitions; describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable.

Step 2: Select the Research Method and Design the Study The type of research method chosen depends on the type of question under study. The researcher might choose a case study, experiment, naturalistic observation, survey or others, each with specific advantages and disadvantages. Once the method is determined, it is necessary to then chose the participants or subjects, whose behavior is systematically observed.

An Observational Study

Step 3: Collect the data Researchers use a variety of data collection techniques, procedures for making empirical observations and measurements. Examples are direct observation questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings and examination of archival records.

Analyzing Data

Step 4: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions Collected data and observations are turned into numerical values which then become “raw data” for the study. Researchers then use statistics to analyze their data and to decide whether their hypotheses have been supported. It is important to stress that all factors must be considered before making inferences about conclusions.

Step 5: Report the Findings Scientific progress can be achieved if researchers share their findings with one another and the general public. The FINAL step is to write up a concise summary of the study and it findings. Often the work is presented at a scientific meeting and submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. Once published, it is evaluated by other researchers for flaws

Advantages of the Scientific Approach Clarity and Precision- requires that people specify exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses which enhances communication about important ideas. Intolerance of Error- Scientists are skeptical and trained to question data and look at empirical tests, documentation and objective data to convince them of new ideas.

No single research method is ideal for all purposes and situations. Research Methods Consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variable in empirical studies. No single research method is ideal for all purposes and situations. We will look at the two major types: experimental research methods and descriptive/correlational research methods.

Experimental Method Disadvantages Advantages An experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under controlled conditions and observes whether any change occur in a second variable as a result. Disadvantages Information obtained in an experimental situation or laboratory may not apply to real life Advantages Greatest potential for identifying cause and effect relationships with less error and bias than either survey or case study

Independent and Dependent Variables An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable. The independent variable is thought to be independent because it is free to be varied by the researchers and it is hypothesized to have some effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable. The dependent variable is thought to depend on the manipulations of the independent variable.

Experimental and Control Groups The experimental group consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable. The control group consists of similar subjects who do NOT receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.

Extraneous and Confounding Variables Extraneous variables are other variables that might cloud the researcher’s ability to draw causal conclusions about how the independent variable affects the dependent variable. Confounding variables occur when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.

Random Assignment It is important to insure that subjects are assigned to either the control or experimental group in a manner that is RANDOM and an equal chance of assignment to either group or condition in the study is possible. When assigned to groups randomly, there is a better chance of the groups being similar.

Experimental Bias: Researchers expectations influence the results of the experiment or study. Can include non-verbal clues to subjects like facial expressions and body language. Double-Blind Study: Neither the subjects nor the researchers know which group is receiving the treatment. Important to control for self-fulfilling prophecies

Disadvantages Advantages Experimental Method Disadvantages Information obtained in an experimental situation or laboratory may not apply to real life Sometimes, this method cannot be used to answer the question at hand. Advantages Greatest potential for identifying cause and effect relationships with less error and bias than either survey or case study

Control Group/Placebo Placebo Effect: Participants expectations cause them to experience a change even though treatment is ineffectual. Can be used in a study to determine a cause and effect relationship.

Descriptive/Correlational Research: Broaden the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study Naturalistic Observation: The careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. It is called naturalistic because behavior is allowed to unfold naturally without inference in the it natural environment. The advantage of this method is that it is less artificial than in experiments. A disadvantage is that researchers often have trouble making their observation unobtrusively so they don’t affect their participants behavior.

Case Study: In-depth study of single person Disadvantages Researcher may have personal beliefs and bias It may be a self-fulfilling prophecy- having a strong belief about a behavior and then acting, usually unknowingly, to fulfill or carry out the behavior Advantages Detailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life

Survey Method A survey is a way of obtaining information by asking many individuals to answer a fixed set of questions There are three types of Surveys: Questionnaires Interview Standardized Tests An Example: What percent of the population is gay? Three different surveys reported three different answers: 2.3%, 10%, 22%

Disadvantages of Surveys How questions are worded-questions can be written to bias the answer Who asks the question- sex or race of the questioner can also affect how people answer the question. People give desirable rather than honest answers. Advantages of Surveys Quickly gather a large amount of information from a large amount of people

Code of Ethics Deception Animal Research Ethical Guidelines Debriefing Privacy Approval from host institutions Voluntary and Informed Consent Safety (physical and emotional)