1. Module 2 Psychology & Science

2. ANSWERING QUESTIONS Research methods –Survey –Case study –Experiment each method provides a different kind of information

3. SURVEYS Survey –way to obtain information by asking many individuals –answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects

4. SURVEYS (CONT.) Disadvantages –_____________________________________ Advantage –__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ ___

5. CASE STUDY Case study –an ________analysis of the _________, _________, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual –Personal Case Study: Testimonial ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ –Error and Bias: Self-fulfilling Prophecy A strong belief or making a statement (prophecy) about a future behavior and then acting, usually unknowingly, to fulfill or carry out the behavior

6. CASE STUDY (CONT.) Disadvantage –__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __ Advantage –__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ ___

7. EXPERIMENT Experiment –a method for identifying __________________relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences

8. EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Disadvantage –information obtained in one experimental situation or laboratory setting may not apply to other situations Advantage –has the greatest potential for identifying cause-and- effect relationships with less error and bias than either surveys or case studies

9. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS Placebo –intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving and injection, or undergoing an operation, that ______________ medical therapy but which in fact, has no medical effects Placebo effect –change in the patient’s illness that is attributable to an __________ treatment rather than to a ______________ treatment

10. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT.) –researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self- fulfilling prophecies –individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective

11. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT.) Placebo examples –Rhino Horn –Bear Gallbladders –Tiger Bones –Cough Medication

12. CORRELATION Correlation –an _________ or ___________ between the occurrence of two or more events Correlation coefficient –a number that indicates the ___________ of a relationship between two or more events: the _________ the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the _________________ is the strength of the relationship

13. CORRELATION

14. CORRELATION (CONT.) Perfect positive correlation coefficient –+1.00 means that an _____________ in one event is always matched by an equal ____________ in a _________________ event Positive correlation coefficient –indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase –increases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

15. CORRELATION (CONT.) Zero correlation –indicates that there is ______relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event Negative correlation coefficient –indicates that as ____ ______ tends to _______, the second event tends to, but does not always, ______________ –-0.01 to -0.99 indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

16. CORRELATION (CONT.) Perfect negative correlation coefficient –-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event –correlations such as –1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research

17. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH What is the best technique for answering a question? –Questionnaires and interviews –Laboratory experiments –Standardized tests –Animal models

18. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.) Interview –technique for obtaining information by asking _____________, ranging from _________to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation Questionnaire –technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and _____________specific answers

19. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.) Laboratory experiments –techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the least error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement Standardized tests –technique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

20. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.) Animal Models –involves ____________ or ___________ some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition –Example: human stem cell transplants in mice with spinal cord injuries

21. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.) Choosing research settings –N_______________________ –L________________________

22. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.) Naturalistic setting –relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation Laboratory setting –involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

23. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT Advantages of scientific method –Scientific Method approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

24. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Conducting an Experiment: seven rules –Rule 1:___________________ –Rule 2:___________________ –Rule 3:____________________ –Rule 4:______________________ –Rule 5:________________________ –Rule 6:__________________________ –Rule 7:_____________________________

25. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Rule 1: Ask –hypothesis –educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

26. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Rule 2: Identify –independent variable a treatment or something that the researcher __________ or ____________________ –dependent variable one or more of the subjects’ ________________ that are used to measure the potential ______ of the treatment or ____________________

27. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Rule 3: Choose –random selection each participant in a sample population has an equal ______________ of being selected for the experiment Rule 4: Assign –experimental group those who _______________ the treatment –control group participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants except that the control participants ______________ the treatment

28. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Rule 5: Manipulate –double blind procedure neither __________ nor __________ know which group is receiving which treatment Rule 6: Measure –by manipulating the treatment so that the experimental group receives a different treatment than the control group, researchers are able to measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors that have been selected as the dependent variables

29. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Rule 7: Analyze –statistical procedures used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

30. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS Concerns about being a subject –human and animal Code of ethics –the American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities

31. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.) –Debriefing –includes explaining the purpose and method of the experiment, asking participants their feelings about being participants in the experiment, and helping the participants deal with possible doubts or guilt that arise from their behaviors

32. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.) Role of deception –one way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose –researchers must justify the deceptive techniques by the scientific, educational, or applied value of the study and can only use deception if no other reasonable way to test the hypothesis is available

33. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.) Ethics of animal research –How many animals are used in research? estimated over _____________animals are used each year in biomedical research –Are research animals mistreated? of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed researchers support the ___________________

34. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.) Ethics of animal research –Is the use of animals justified? researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue none of which is possible with human subjects –Who checks on the use of animals in research? U. S. Department of Agriculture universities hire veterinarians universities have animal subject committees

35. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.) Ethics of animal research –How do we strike a balance? many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue