1. Module 2
Psychology & Science

2. ANSWERING QUESTIONS
Research methods
Survey
Case study
Experiment

3. ANSWERING QUESTIONS (CONT.)
Researchers use all three methods
survey
case study
experiment
each method provides a different kind of information

4. SURVEYS Survey way to obtain information by asking many individuals
answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects

5. SURVEYS (CONT.) Disadvantages information can contain errors
results can be biased
Advantage
efficient way to obtain much information from a large number of people

6. CASE STUDY
Case study
an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual

7. CASE STUDY (CONT.) Disadvantage
detailed information about a particular person may not apply to others
Advantage
detailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life

8. EXPERIMENT Experiment
a method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences.

9. EXPERIMENT (CONT.) Disadvantage
information obtained in one experimental situation or laboratory setting may not apply to other situations
Advantage
has the greatest potential for identifying cause-and-effect relationships with less error and bias than either surveys or case studies

10. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS
intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving and injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but which in fact, has no medical effects
Placebo effect
change in the patient’s illness that is attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment

11. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT.)
researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies
individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective

12. CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT.)
Placebo examples
Rhino Horn
Bear Gallbladders
Tiger Bones
Magnets

13. p31 magnets

14. CORRELATION Correlation
an association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events
Correlation coefficient
a number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship

15. p32 number graph

16. CORRELATION (CONT.) Perfect positive correlation coefficient
+1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event
Positive correlation coefficient
indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase
increases from to indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

17. CORRELATION (CONT.) Zero correlation
indicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event
Negative correlation coefficient
indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, decrease
-0.01 to indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

18. CORRELATION (CONT.) Perfect negative correlation coefficient
-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event
correlations such as –1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research

19. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
What is the best technique for answering a question?
Questionnaires and interviews
Laboratory experiments
Standardized tests
Animal models

20. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)
Interview
technique for obtaining information by asking questions, ranging from open-ended to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation
Questionnaire
technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers

21. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)
Laboratory experiments
techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the lease error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement
Standardized tests
technique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

22. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)
Animal Models
involves examining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition

23. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)
Choosing research settings
Naturalistic setting
Laboratory setting

24. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)
Naturalistic setting
relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation
Laboratory setting
involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

25. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT
Advantages of scientific method
scientific Method
approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

26. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Conducting and Experiment: seven rules
Rule 1: Ask
Rule 2: Identify
Rule 3: Choose
Rule 4: Assign
Rule 5: Manipulate
Rule 6: Measure
Rule 7: Analyze

27. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 1: Ask
hypothesis
educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

28. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 2: Identify
independent variable
a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulates
dependent variable
one or more of the subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

29. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 3: Choose
random selection
each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment
Rule 4: Assign
experimental group
those who receive the treatment
control group
participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants except that the control participants do not receive the treatment

30. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 5: Manipulate
double blind procedure
neither participants nor researchers know which group is receiving which treatment
Rule 6: Measure
by manipulating the treatment so that the experimental group receives a different treatment than the control group, researchers are able to measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors that have been selected as the dependent variables

31. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 7: Analyze
statistical procedures
used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

32. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Concerns about being a subject
human and animal
Code of ethics
the American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities

33. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)
Role of deception
one way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose

34. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)
Ethics of animal research
How many animals are used in research?
18 to 22 million animals are used each year in biomedical research
Are research animals mistreated?
Of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed.

35. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)
Ethics of animal research
Is the use of animals justified?
researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue
none of which is possible with human subjects
Who checks on the use of animals in research?
U. S. Department of Agriculture
universities hire veterinarians
universities have animal subject committees

36. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)
Ethics of animal research
How do we strike a balance?
many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue