Chapter 7 The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development Charles A. Guigno, M.A. CharlesA.Guigno@kbcc.cuny.edu

Developing Emotions As always, culture and experience influence the norms of development. This is especially true for emotional development after the first eight months.

Emotional Development: Infant Emotions CHRISTOPHER HERWIG/GETTY IMAGES Early emotions High emotional responsiveness Reactive pain and pleasure to complex social awareness Smiling and laughing Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity (familiarity and surprise) Smiles All Around Joy is universal when an infant smiles at her beaming grandparents—a smile made even better when the tongue joins in. Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces, normally evident in infants about six weeks after birth Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity

Infant Emotional Development Anger First expressed at around 6 months Is healthy response to frustration (hate to be strapped in, caged, closed in or even held when they want to explore) Sadness Appears in first months Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol (stress hormone) Anger releases stress and sadness is repressed anger

Infant Emotional Development Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations Separation anxiety: clinging and crying when a familiar caregiver is about to leave. tears, dismay, or anger occur Normal at 1, Intensifies by 2, but if it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder Stranger wariness: fear of unfamiliar people, especially when they move too close, too quickly. Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened Means that infant’s memories are working

Toddler Emotional Development Toddlers emotions Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused (towards infuriating or terrifying experiences) Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating Temper tantrums may appear (they are without logic, so adults react accordingly) Sadness comes after tantrums and then comfort is helpful. New emotions: require social awareness Pride Shame Embarrassment Disgust Guilt Requires an awareness of other people Emerges from family interactions, influenced by the culture By age 2, most toddlers display entire spectrum of emotions and begin to regulate their reactions.

Emotional Development STEPHEN CHIANG/GETTY IMAGES Mirror Recognition Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978) Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. 15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity. A t 18 months, he is at the beginning of self-awareness, testing to see whether his mirror image will meet his finger Glad to Meet You She enjoys meeting another baby, even if that baby is herself in the mirror. Later, at about 18 months, she will realize that the mirror image is herself.

Emotional Development Self-awareness Person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. First 4 months Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers. 5 months Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers. 15-18 months Emergence of the me-self Using first-person pronouns (I, me, mine, myself, my)

Hush Now Babies cry and parents soothe them the world over, while contexts shape both crying and soothing. The little girl (left) will probably quiet soon, as she is held snuggly next to her father’s body. The boy (right) is less likely to settle down, as he is surrounded by strangers in a Ukrainian contest to see which baby can crawl fastest.

Emotional Development: Temperament Inborn (nature not nurture) differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) Thomas & Chess Started in the 1960s By 3 months they found four categories of temperament 1) Easy 2) Difficult 3) slow-to-warm up 4) hard to classify Categories Easy (40%) Difficult (10%) Slow to warm up (15%) Hard to classify (35%)

Emotional Development: Temperament NYLS overall conclusions: Apparent dimensions 1) Effortful control (able to regulate attention and emotion, self-soothe) 2) Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy) 3) Exuberant (active, social, not shy) Each of these dimensions is associated with distinctive brain patterns as well as behavior, and each affects later personality.

Emotional Development: Temperament Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001) Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation Positive (exuberant) Negative Inhibited (fearful) Less than half altered their responses as they grew older Fearful infants were most likely to change Exuberant infants were least likely to change Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament

Development of Social Bonds Attachment Involves lasting emotional bond that one person has with another Begins to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life Overtakes synchrony Demonstrated through proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining

Signs of Attachment Infants show their attachment in several ways Proximity-seeking: Approaching and following their caregivers Contact-maintaining: Touching, snuggling, and holding Attachment Universal part of inborn social nature of the human species Specific manifestations vary depending on the culture and age of the people who are attached to each other Proximity-seeking is evident when a baby cries if the mother closes the door when she goes to the bathroom or if a back-facing car seat prevents the baby from seeing the parent.

Patterns of Infant Attachment

Development of Social Bonds: Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom Key observed behaviors Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. Reaction to the caregiver's departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. Reaction to the caregiver's return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance.

Development of Social Bonds: Attachment Types Secure attachment Relationship (type B) in which infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure-avoidant attachment Pattern of attachment (type A) in which infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Development of Social Bonds: Attachment Types Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment Pattern of attachment (type C) in which anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when an infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion Disorganized attachment Type of attachment (type D) that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Psychoanalytic Theory FREUD: Oral and anal stages Oral stage (first year) Anal stage (second year) Potential conflicts Oral fixation Anal personality (disputed by current developmentalists) FREUD: Oral and anal stages Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification Anal stage (second year): Infant's main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them) Potential conflicts: Oral fixation: If a mother frustrates her infant's urge to suck, the child may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively) Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Theory ERIKSON: Trust and autonomy stages Trust versus mistrust Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met Autonomy versus shame and doubt Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies Early problems An adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy) can be created

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Behaviorism BANDURA: Social learning theory Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment Behavior patterns acquired by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study Hammering Bobo These images are stills from the film of Bandura’s original study of social learning, in which frustrated 4-year-olds imitated the behavior they had observed an adult perform. The children used the same weapon as the adult, with the same intent—whether that involved hitting the doll with a hammer, shooting it