CLASS #1: AP CLASS #2: AP/AdvP CLASS #3: AdvP, PP CLASS #4: PP CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS CLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE, WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS MIDTERM

FINAL ANNOUNCEMENT! THE MIDTERM EXAM IS SCHEDULED FOR MAY 15, 2012 THAT’S NEXT TUESDAY. TIME: PLACE: AUDITORIUM (‘AMFITEATAR’)

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT! THERE WILL BE NO PRACTICE CLASSES IN GEJ2 NEXT WEEK (NEITHER ON TUESDAY (GROUPS B, C and D), NOR ON WEDNESDAY (Group A)). HOWEVER, YOU WILL HAVE A LECTURE ON WEDNESDAY.

BEFORE WE START THE LECTURE… DO YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS REGARDING YOU UPCOMING MIDTERM EXAM?

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE LECTURE #2 –

Basic concepts of a science are notoriously difficult to define, e.g. atom, number, society, etc. WHAT DID WE DO LAST TIME?

REVIEW  TWO WEEKS AGO WE DISCUSSED:  THE CONCEPT AND PROPER DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE WHAT IS A SENTENCE?  SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE  CLASSIFICATION(S) OF SENTENCES STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION (number and type of clauses): SIMPLE, COMPLEX and COMPOUND CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES BASED ON THE TYPE OF VERB 7 types of simple sentences: SVC, SVA, SV, SVO, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA)  SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED (what structures are used to realize a particular sentence element: e.g. Od can be an NP or a nominal clause)

SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED SENTENCE ELEMENTS SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS (S, V, O, C, A) can be realized in different forms: PHRASES and CLAUSES

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined PP In the state of nirvana is how I want to feel. AdvP Here is the latest report from Tripoli. Tomorrow is Thursday. AP Beautiful beyond words is how I would describe her.

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

END OF REVIEW

SEMANTICALLY SENTENCE ELEMENTS DEFINED

SENTENCE ELEMENTS semantically defined Let’s take a simple sentence as an example: Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife. SUBJECTVERBOBJECTADVERBIAL A syntactic analysis of the sentence would yield the following syntactic structure: SVOA However, there is another way to analyze the sentence – from the semantic point of view.

SENTENCE ELEMENTS semantically defined Semantically speaking, every verb describes a SITUATION in which one or more PARTICIPANTS are involved. If we look at the sentence “Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife.” we can say that the verb KILL describes a situation which involves three different participants: 1 = THE PERSON WHO PERFORMED THE ACTIVITY 2 = THE PERSON WHO WAS KILLED 3 = THE INSTRUMENT USED FOR KILLING Semantically, these participants are said to have specific SEMANTIC ROLES: 1. is THE AGENT, 2. is THE THEME/PATIENT, and 3. is the INSTRUMENT Semantically, these participants are said to have specific SEMANTIC ROLES: 1. is THE AGENT, 2. is THE THEME/PATIENT, and 3. is the INSTRUMENT

SENTENCE ELEMENTS semantically defined One SYNTACTIC ELEMENT/CONSTITUENT can have VARIOUS SEMANTIC ROLES. For example, the SUBJECT can have three different semantic roles: John opened the door. (SUBJECT is the AGENT) The key opened the door. (SUBJECT is the INSTRUMENT) The door opened. (SUBJECT is the THEME/PATIENT) Actually, this is just the tip of the iceberg: the subject can have as many as THIRTEEN (13!!!) different semantic roles.

SUBJECT – semantically defined

DIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

INDIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

COMPLEMENTS – semantically defined

NOW…

…SOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENT

CONCORD

BUT THIS IS NOT CONCORD! THIS IS CONCORDE. UNLIKE CONCORDE, CONCORD IS A GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY.

CONCORD Concord is AGREEMENT between two sentence elements with respect to certain grammatical features. Officially: CONCORD (sometimes termed AGREEMENT) is the relationship between TWO GRAMMATICAL UNITS such that one of them DISPLAYS A PARTICULAR FEATURE (e.g. plurality) that ACCORDS WITH A DISPLAYED (or semantically implicit) FEATURE in the other unit. *Marko_ je čitala zanimljivu časopis_. Marko_ je čitao zanimljiv časopis_. As we can see in Serbian, there seem to be several types of concord. Even in English! But more about it soon.

WHERE CAN WE SEE CONCORD? *Mary were in London yesterday. *John cut herself. *John cut themselves. *John is an actress. *John considers Bill an actress. *John considers them an actor. S-V concord (gender, person, number) S-O concord (gender, person, number) S-O concord (gender, person, number) S-Cs concord (gender, person, number) O-Co concord (gender, person, number) O-Co concord (gender, person, number)

CONCORD – types of CONCORD Depending on SENTENCE ELEMENT Subject-verb concord Subject- complement concord Object- complement concord Depending on GRAMMATICAL FEATURES Concord of NUMBER Concord of PERSON Concord of GENDER

S-V concord: NOUN PHRASES The CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious in industry. The CHANGES in male attitude are most obvious in industry. When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase counts as singular IF ITS HEAD IS SINGULAR.

S-V concord: AdvP and PP Slowly does it! In the evenings is best for me. Prepositional phrases and adverb phrases functioning as subjects count as SINGULAR.

S-V concord: CLAUSES How they got there doesn’t concern me. To treat them as hostages is criminal. Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health. Finite and non-finite clauses generally count as SINGULAR. However, there are some apparent exceptions.

S-V concord: clauses add-on What were supposed to be new proposals were in fact modifications of earlier ones. What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble. Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well. What ideas he has are his wife’s.  These are NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES:  their number depends on the interpretation of the number of the WH-ELEMENT, e.g. with determiners WHAT and WHATEVER the concord depends on the number of the determined noun (the last two examples)

S-V concord: general rules General rule of S-V concord: A subject which is not clearly semantically plural requires a singular verb. In other words: SINGULAR is the UNMARKED FORM which is to be used in neutral circumstances when there is no positive. This explains why in informal speech we can often hear: There is hundreds of people in the streets.

S-V concord: exceptions Measles is sometimes serious. Our people are complaining. Apparent exceptions include SINGULAR NOUNS ending in –S (e.g. measles, billards, mathematics, etc.) and PLURAL NOUNS lacking the –S (e.g. cattle, people, clergy, etc.).

S-V concord: exceptions Crime and Punishment is a great novel. Brother Karamzov is his masterpiece. The Cedars has a huge garden. ‘Senior citizens’ means people over sixty. Plural noun phrases (including coordinate phrases) count as singular if they are used as NAMES, TITLES, QUOTATIONS, etc. Such NPs can be regarded as appositive structures with an implied singular head: the book ‘Crime and Punishment’, the expression ‘senior citizens’, etc.

S-V concord: exceptions The Canterbury Tales exists in many manuscripts. The Canterbury Tales exist in many manuscripts. The titles of some works that are collection of stories may be counted as either singular or plural.

Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITY No one except his own supporters AGREE with him.  The head is NO ONE, but the verb agrees with SUPPORTERS – this is called PROXIMITY.  PROXIMITY (also called ‘ATTRACTION’) denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding NP in preference to agreement with the head of the NP that functions as subject:  Proximity is here reinforced by NOTIONAL CONCORD (‘Only his own supporters agree with him’).  NOTIONAL CONCORD – how the speaker understands the concept denoted with the NP (singular or plural) regardless of the grammatical form

EXAMPLES OF NOTIONAL CONCORD  Ten dollars is all I have left.  [That amount is…]  Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.  [That period is…]  Two miles is as far as they can walk.  [That distance is…]  Two thirds of the area is under water.  [That area is…],  BUT:  Sixty people means a huge party.  [That number of people means…]

Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITY  Conflict between grammatical concord and proximity increases with the distance between the NP head of the subject and the VP (e.g. when an adverbial or a parenthesis intervenes between the subject and the verb).  Proximity concord occurs mainly in unplanned discourse – in writing it will be corrected to grammatical concord.  We will discuss GRAMMATICAL CONCORD, NOTIONAL CONCORD and PROXIMITY in the following cases:  Collective noun head  Coordinated subject  Indefinite expressions

COLLECTIVE NOUNS The audience were enjoying every minute of it. The public are tired of demonstration. England have won the cup. Our Planning Committee have considered… Singular collective nouns may be notionally plural. In BRITISH ENGLISH the verb may be EITHER SINGULAR or PLURAL.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS The audience was enormous. The public consists of you and me. The crowd has been dispersed. The choice between singular and plural verbs depends in BRITISH ENGLISH on whether the group is being considered as a single undivided body or as a collection of individuals. On the whole: the plural is more popular in speech, whereas in writing the singular is preferred.

COORDINATED SUBJECTS When a subject consists of TWO or MORE noun phrases (or clauses) coordinated by AND, we must make a distinction between: COORDINATION (PROPER) COORDINATIVE APPOSITION

COORDINATION (PROPER)  Tom and Alice ARE now ready. =[Tom is now ready and Alice is now ready.]  What I say and what I think ARE my own affair. =[What I say is my own affair and what I think is my own affair] BUT:  What I say and do IS my own affair. COORDINATION REFERS TO CASES WHEN WE HAVE FULL COORDINATED FORMS (not REDUCED FORMS). A PLURAL VERB IS USED EVEN IF EACH CONJOIN IS SINGULAR.

COORDINATION (PROPER)  His camera, his phone, his money WERE confiscated by the customs officials. A PLURAL VERB IS ALSO NEEDED WHEN THERE IS NO COORDINATOR.

COORDINATION (PROPER)  Your problem and mine ARE similar. =[Your problem is similar to mine and mine is similar to yours.]  What I say and do ARE two different things. =[What I say is one thing and what I do is another thing.] Conjoins expressing MUTUAL RELATIONSHIP are also PLURAL.

COORDINATION PROPER TRICKY ISSUE  Every adult and every child was holding a flag.  Each senator and congressman was allocated two seats.  Each of them has signed the petition. BUT:  They have each signed allocated two seats. PREPOSED EACH AND EVERY HAVE A DISTRIBUTIVE EFFECT AND REQUIRE A SINGULAR VERB.

COORDINATIVE APPOSITION  This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT:  His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers was with him at his deathbed.  His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATIVE APPOSITION  This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT:  His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers was with him at his deathbed.  His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATION WITH OR AND NOR 1. Either the Mayor or her deputy IS (ARE) bound to come. 2. What I say or what I think IS(ARE) no business of yours. 3. Either the strikers of the bosses (HAS) HAVE misunderstood the claim. 4. Either your brakes or your eyesight IS (ARE) at fault. 5. Either your eyesight or your brakes ARE (IS) at fault. When coordinated items have the same number, there is pure grammatical concord: when they are both singular (1 and 2) the verb is also singular, when they are both plural (3), the verb is also plural. When coordinated items do not have the same number, English follows the principle of PROXIMITY: whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb. (4 and 5). NOT…BUT and NOT ONLY…BUT behave like EITHER…OR.

INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT - CONCORD  INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (anyone/anybody, no one/nobody, someone/somebody, everyone/everybody) and NOUNS OF DUAL GENDER (student, teacher, lawyer, judge, etc.) can be referred to by personal pronouns in THREE WAYS:  UNMARKED HE (now considered sexist): Everyone thinks he has the answer to that question.  HE OR SHE (politically correct, but long and clumsy): Someone has to make up his or her mind.  THEY (the most politically correct form): Everyone thinks they or her have the answer. Nobody called did they. Every applicant should hand in their application form now. Nowadays the best choice because of PC.

NOW…

…SOMETHING A BIT DIFFERENT…

…AND RATHER NEGATIVE…

BASIC INFORMATION NEGATION

 Negation is a LOGICAL OPERATION of implying the opposite or absence of something that is without negation regarded as actual, positive, or affirmative.

GENERAL TYPES OF NEGATION  CLAUSE NEGATION – the whole clause is syntactically treated as negative:  Rosie's [not an attractive elephant in any respect] (, is she?)  LOCAL NEGATION – one constituent/sentence element is negated:  [Nothing] agrees with me more than oysters. LOCAL NEGATION Eating nothing agrees with me more than eating oysters. LOCAL NEGATION  [Nothing agrees with me more than oysters]. CLAUSAL NEGATION Oysters agree with me more than anything else CLAUSE NEGATION  PHRASAL NEGATION – one phrase is negated:  She gave me [not even a moment] to somehow collect my thoughts.  PREDICATION NEGATION – very rare, applies to predication only after certain auxiliaries (usually depends on pronunciation):  They may [not go swimming]. [=They are allowed not to go swimming] NEGATION IS REALIZED THROUGH USE OF NEGATIVE ITEMS.

NEGATIVE ITEMS  NEGATION is RELIZED through NEGATIVE ITEMS.  SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOR of NEGATIVE ITEMS:  NEGATIVE ITEMS trigger the use of NONASSERTIVE FORMS: John is not coming either. I don’t have many friends. I seldom get any sleep.  When NEGATIVE ITEMS are placed in the position BEFORE THE SUBJECT, they can cause a SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION (a.k.a. NEGATIVE INVERSION): Never have I seen anything like that before! Seldom has a truer word been spoken.  NEGATIVE ITEMS are followed by POSITIVE QUESTION TAGS: She rarely visits you, does she? Remember them from GEJ1? Those are the words that only appear in nonassertive sentences: any, anybody, yet, either, any longer, much, etc.

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS  The clause can be negated:  EITHER BY NEGATING THE VERB (VERBAL NEGATION),  OR BY NEGATING OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS (NON-VERBAL NEGATION).  Depending on what sentence element is being negated, it is necessary to use different negative items:  VERB NEGATION: the negative particle NOT is always used: He does not drink. She is not a model wife.  NEGATION OF OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS can be achieved using DIFFERENT NEGATIVE ITEMS: Words negative in form and meaning (NUCLEAR NEGATIVES): no, none, never, not Word negative in meaning only (not negative in form): rarely, seldom, scarcely, barely, little, few VERBS, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSTIONS with IMPLIED NEGATIVE MEANING: refuse, deny, fail; reluctant, unaware; without, against; unless

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS  Nuclear negatives (non-verbal explicitly negative items) can be classified into: NEGATIVE PRONOUNS (e.g. in S or O position): Nobody came. None of the passengers were hurt. I saw nothing. NEGATIVE MODIFYING ADVERBS: I felt [none the worse] for it. > modifying AP [Not many] people turned up. > modifying DETERMINER [Not even] the president of Pakistan was informed. > modifying ADVERB NEGATIVE DETERMINERS: I expected [no reply]. [Neither team manager] was informed. NEGATIVE COORDINATORS: Neither today nor tomorrow is suitable. NEGATIVE ADJUNCTS: Elephants never forget. We found nowhere to stay.

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS  Negatives with positive-word form (rarely, seldom, scarcely, hardly, little, few, barely, only, etc.) are treated as NEGATIVE FORMS because: THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY NON-ASSERTIVE FORMS: I seldom get ANY sleep. I’ve spoken to hardly ANYONE. Few changes in government have EVER taken so many people by surprise. Only two of us had ANY experience in sailing. WHEN THEY ARE PLACED IN THE INITIAL POSITION, THEY CAUSE NEGATIVE INVERSION: Rarely DOES crime PAY so well as Mr Benn seems to think. Little NEED I DWELL upon the hope that she actually loves me. THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY POSITIVE TAG-QUESTIONS: She scarcely seems to care for you, DOES SHE?

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION We’ve had some lunch. He saw one man or the other. We’ve had some. We haven’t had any lunch. We had no lunch. He didn’t see either man. He saw neither man. (unusual) We haven’t had any. We’ve had none. ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE)

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION He saw one or other of the men. I’ve bought something for you. She sometimes visits me. He didn’t see either of the men. He saw neither of the men. I haven’t bought anything for you. I’ve bought nothing for you. She doesn’t ever visit me. She never visits me. ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE) OBVIOUSLY, IN THE VAST MAJORITY OF INSTANCES THE SPEAKER HAS A CHOICE BETWEEN USING THE VERBAL NEGATION (VERB+NOT) OR NON-VERBAL NEGATION (NONE, NOTHING, ETC.). HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH THESE TWO FORMS ARE SEMANTICALLY EQUIVALENT, THEY ARE RARELY APPROPRIATE IN THE SAME STYLE OR REGISTER. NON-VERBAL NEGATION IS MUCH MORE FREQUENT IN FORMAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE, WHILE VERBAL NEGATION IS MORE INFORMAL.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation  Unlike most other languages, standard national forms of English (BrE, AmE, CaE, AuE, etc.) DO NOT FAVOR MULTIPLE NEGATION.  Multiple negation is allowed in SUB-STANDARD varieties of English, e.g. AAVE: Yo, I’m telling you man, nobody ain’t seen nothing.  The negative item MUST BE FOLLOWED THROUGHOUT THE REST OF THE CLAUSE BY ONE OR MORE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS.\  I haven’t said ANYTHING to ANYBODY YET.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation  However, even in standard English it is occasionally permissible to have two negations if each negative element negates its own part of the sentence.  I ca[n’t] [not obey].  [Not many people] have [nowhere to live].  [No one] has [nothing to offer to society].  [Not many Spaniards] have [no knowledge of bull fighting].  [Nobody here] has [never at any time told a lie].  Neighbours [should not be] [uncooperative]. THE FACT THAT THESE SENTENCES ARE GRAMMATICAL HAS TO DO WITH SOMETHING CALLED “SCOPE OF NEGATION”

NEGATION: SCOPE OF NEGATION  The SCOPE OF NEGATION is the stretch of language OVER WHICH THE NEGATIVE MEANING OPERATES AND WHERE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS MUST BE USED.  The SCOPE OF NEGATION EXTENDS FROM THE NEGATIVE ITEM TO:  THE END OF THE CLAUSE (NOT NECESSARILY THE END OF THE SENTENCE),  THE END OF THE NEGATED PHRASE (IF ONLY A SINGLE PHRASE IS NEGATED), OR  THE BEGINNING OF THE FINAL ADJUNCT.  WHY IS THIS SUCH A BIG DEAL? The POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE ITEM may drastically INFLUENCE THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE SENTENCE:

SCOPE OF NEGATION  Nothing agrees with me more than oysters. = There is nothing else that I like more than oysters.  Nothing agrees with me more than oysters. = I would much rather eat nothing than oysters.

SCOPE OF NEGATION  I definitely didn’t speak to him. = It is definite that I did not.  I didn’t definitely speak to him. = It is not definite that I did.

SCOPE OF NEGATION  I wasn’t LISTENING all the time. = For the whole time, I wasn’t listening.  I wasn’t listening ALL the time. = It’s not true that I was listening all the time. SO, WHEN AN ADJUNCT IS FINAL, IT MAY OR MAY NOT LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

SCOPE OF NEGATION  I didn’t listen to some of them. = There were some of the speakers that I didn’t listen to.  I didn’t listen to any of them. = There were not any speakers that I listened to. SO, IF AN ASSERTIVE ITEM IS USED IN THE ADJUNCT, THE ADJUNCT MUST LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

FOCUS OF NEGATION  The FOCUS OF NEGATION is the part of the sentence within the scope of negation that bears special stress. E.g.  I didn’t take the exam last week.  I didn’t take the grammar last week.  I didn’t take the grammar exam week.  I didn’t take the grammar exam last.

FOCUS OF NEGATION – add-on  Focus of negation is a SPECIAL/CONTRASTIVE NUCLEAR STRESS which is placed on a particular part of the clause in order to indicate that the contrast of meaning implicit in THE NEGATION IS LOCATED AT THAT SPOT and also that THE REST OF THE CLAUSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN A POSITIVE SENSE.  The focus of negation can split the scope of negation so that the scope becomes DISCONTINUOUS.

FOCUS OF NEGATION  I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today. = I forgot to do so. (FALLING INTONATION)  I didn’t take JOAN to swim in the pool today. = I took Mary instead.

FOCUS OF NEGATION  I didn’t take Joan to SWIM in the pool today. = I just took her there to see the pool.  I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today. = I took her to the lake instead. (RISING INTONATION)

FOCUS OF NEGATION  I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool TODAY. = I took her there last week.  I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. = It was my brother who took her.

SCOPE AND FOCUS  Scope and focus of negation are INTERRELATED, such that the scope must include the focus.  So, one way of signaling the extent of the scope of negation is by the position of the focus.  One example of this is when the scope of negation is atypically extended to include a subordinate clause, with a contrastive fall-rise to emphasize this:

SCOPE AND FOCUS  I didn’t leave HOME because I was afraid of my FATHER. = Because I was afraid of my father, I didn’t leave home.  I didn’t leave home because I was afraid of my FATHER. = I left home, but it wasn’t because I was afraid of my father.

SCOPE AND FOCUS  She didn’t come to SEE him when he ASKED. = When he asked, she didn’t come to see him.  She didn’t come to see him when he ASKED. = She came to see him, but not at the time he asked her to come to see him.

THE END THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME! CU NEXT WEEK!