EUROPE IN UPHEAVAL, Scott Masters Crestwood College (adapted by Darlene Tempelton for AP European History)

after the revolutionary changes/idealism of the early 19th c., Europe began to follow a more pragmatic course, determined by more practical politicians and reformers to varying degrees, they would play a key role in one of the period’s more sig. developments: the Rise of the Nation- State the force behind this was nationalism, esp. as it was harnessed by individual philosophers and politicians “new” nations would be created, and eventually the forces that would lead to WW I would be unleashed –the nationalism of this period would include not only territory, population, and military capacity; it would also include an economic dimension – this created a contest of imperialism

FRANCEno longer a monarchy, but a republic – but Louis-Napoleon (Bonaparte) was an autocratic figure whose use of nationalism threatened this balance Louis-Napoleon had emerged as a compromise figure in the ongoing dispute between the monarchists and the republicans –h–h–h–he served as pres. (in the Second Republic) and later took the title of emperor, ruling as Napoleon III over the Second Empire

As presidents of the 2nd Repub., L-N had to contend w/ being limited to one 4 yr. term…he and the monarchists wanted to extend his rule, leading to a coup –t–t–t–the Assembly was dissolved, universal male suffrage was intro’d (w/ a property qualification), leading radicals were arrested, and the army occupied Paris, killing 200 rioters in the process… –L–L–L–Louis then proclaimed himself emperor and promised to restore democratic rights, including a series of plebiscites where the people supported him

He was able to do this as the economy was prosperous, w/ … –r–r–r–railroad construction –h–h–h–high employment –a–a–a–available credit –g–g–g–gov’t assistance/planning (seen in the re-design of Paris by Haussman) By the 1860s, discontent was on the rise, b/c of political scandals; Napoleon III responded w/ democratic reforms (resp. gov’t, free speech, unions…) that kept his popularity high

Nap. III did have military ambitions: in 1854, he sought to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire, challenging Russia in the process… the main thing the Crimean War did was to presage what modern war would become it also showed the influence of war correspondents and the need for better medicine (Florence Nightingale); and since Russia fared poorly, France was able to re-establish itself as the center of European diplomacy

ITALY one of the “new” nations united in this period – it combined idealistic nationalism, popular uprising, realpolitik and took place in spite of opposition from the pope and Austria this movement., known as the Risorgimento, had been around since the early 19th c. and had been kept alive by secret societies known as carbonari

–their early uprisings failed, leading to the rise of Giuseppe Mazzini – he founded a Young Italy society and dreamed of a unified Italy based on nationalism and liberalism after a series of uprisings, Mazzini established himself as president of a republic in Rome: when Austrian and Fr. troops tried to intervene to restore the pope, Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts tried to defend the city (they had to surrender in 1849)

the more seasoned politician Camillo Cavour stepped forward, using realpolitik to secure Italian unity – he cheated in elections, made and unmade foreign alliances, and put Italian unification on the agenda of the 1856 Paris Peace Conf. (he was partially successful) at this point, Garibaldi and his remaining 1000 Red Shirts (i mille) captured Sicily and s. Italy, meeting w/ Cavour in 1861 to secure the Kingdom of Italy under King Victor- Emmanuel II (constitutional monarchy); in 1866 Venice was added (Italy supported Prussia in its war w/ Austria) and in 1870 Rome was added when Napoleon. III removed French troops to fight Prussia.... Rome then became the capital

GERMANY Romanticism + Realpolitik Liberal nationalists had worked for a unified Germany since 1815 Liberal nationalists had worked for a unified Germany since 1815 The northern states under Prussia created an economic union in 1834 – the Zollverein (customs union) – led to economic, industrial, and railroad expansion; the belief that a unified state was needed began to be recognized The northern states under Prussia created an economic union in 1834 – the Zollverein (customs union) – led to economic, industrial, and railroad expansion; the belief that a unified state was needed began to be recognized

The debate was between the “Greater Germans” (who wanted Austria included) and the “Lesser Germans” (who were pro- Prussia) at this point, Count Otto von Bismarck est. himself as the leading Prussian politician – known for his use of realpolitik in achieving his political goals (“blood and iron”)

–All Bismarck needed was an excuse: Denmark gave him one when it put a claim on the regions of Schleswig and Holstein – both Austria and Prussia quickly defeated them (and the Prussian army, armed by Krupp, est. its reputation) –He then proposed the re- organization of the German Confederation based on universal suffrage; he knew this would be rejected in Austria and that it would probably lead to war between Prussia and Austria

The Pr. army, w/ its industrial weaponry and led by Gen. Helmuth von Moltke, won the Austro-Prussian War in 7 wks….Bismarck negotiated a lenient peace and created a new Ger. Confed. under Prussian leadership (Pr. Kaiser Wilhelm I acted as king) Other southern Ger. states, such as Bavaria, signed a military alliance w/ Prussia and went on to develop closer economic and political relations (Austria was pushed out) The main threat to emerging Ger. unity was France, where Nap. III had won a key plebiscite in 1870

–this would lead to the Franco- Prussian War it began as a diplomatic dispute over succession to the Spanish Throne (Pr. and Sp. still had family connections = Hohenzollern)…the Fr. feared being surrounded and newspapers in both Pr. and Fr. inflamed nationalist emotions –Pr. did remove their candidate to the Sp. throne, but the Fr. made add. demands (that Pr. wouldn’t try this again), which Bismarck edited and released to the press…w/ French “honour” sullied, Nap. III declared war in 1870

–Prussia won w/in months…1/2 million troops were moved to the front by train and at Sedan they captured 100,000 Fr. troops and Nap. III…this, combined w/ the brutal siege of Paris, led to the collapse of the 2nd Empire In the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace- Lorraine, paid reparations, and dealt w/ Prussian occupation for 3 years.

LATE VICTORIAN BRITAIN, : DISRAELI AND GLADSTONE democracy had been entrenched by this time, and the extension of the franchise was an accepted part of the process –i–i–i–in 1867, the 2nd Reform Bill was passed by the gov’t of the Conservative (Tory) Benjamin Disraeli working class male householders were given suffrage –i–i–i–in 1884, a 3rd Reform Bill went through under the Liberal (Whig) William Gladstone, extending the franchise to male rural householders

late 19th c. Great Britain still saw the same ongoing conflict though: reform vs. tradition Disraeli tried to profit from this by creating a new conservatism that appealed to established landowners and the working class –e–e–e–emphasized tradition, patriotism, and reform; working w/ Queen Victoria, who emerged as key symbol of his vision –D–D–D–Disraeli also emerged as a leading imperialist: he made Victoria the Empress of India and bought shares in the Suez Canal, and fought colonial wars in Asia and Africa –A–A–A–At home, his social reforms recognized unions, public housing, consumer protection, workplace safety…

Gladstone and the Liberals followed “Peace, Retrenchment, and Reform”, favouring free trade and fewer colonial wars/adventures –They also favoured a laissez faire approach and the eradication of outdated laws –In this respect, they reformed the army, civil service, and educational institutions, doing away w/ patronage –after ongoing Balkan conflict saw the slaughter of thousands of Christians by the Ottomans (Disraeli backed the Ottomans b/c of his concerns over Russia), Gladstone was back in office

Gladstone was not successful in his own foreign policy initiatives – conflict w/ the Boers and the Irish showed that peace was elusive; w/ his introduction of the Irish Home Rule Bill he split his own party w/ these developments. and those in other Euro. nations, a new type of rivalry had emerged, based on industry, imperialism and economic competition nationalism in the Balkans was especially complex b/c of the number of ethno-cultural groups in close proximity; they were stuck in the collapsing Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and the Balkan Wars of only inflamed emotions

the “spark” would thus occur in this region, creating the total war that would transform the 20th c. Germany and Great Britain emerged as the key powers in this period often called “The Road to War” – both identified their dominance as a natural outcome of earlier history: the difference was that in Ger. the old aristocracy retained its influence w/o much trouble, while in G.B. the dispute between the landed interests and the people led to constitutional crises and reforms

SOCIALISM socialism had appeal for the growing trade union movement. as well as those who gravitated to Marx –several attempts at real soc. organization had been made and had not succeeded –subsequent attempts took a different approach: gradualism replaced revolution for many socialists this approach came to be known as revisionism, and it divided the socialist World even so, Social Democratic parties did begin to appear and had success in Ger. and Fr. –in GB the Labour Party arose during this period to represent the working class –from its inception, the Labour Party was divided between the trade unionists and intellectuals (assoc. w/ the Fabians)

the entrenchment of socialist ideals had created a sense of crisis in Europe – it was more pronounced in the repressive conditions of Eeastern Europe –Russia in 1905 saw the beginning of profound change as revolution began to grip the country (during the time of Tsar Nicholas II, ) –Russia was in the midst of an identity crisis: tsarist repression + industrialization (much of which was financed by foreign capital; it created the Russian working class and the demand for revolutionary change)

The principal Marxist Party, the Social Democratic Party, had been exiled to Switz. – they were caught in the revisionist debate along w/ other Euro. Socialists Vladimir Lenin authored What Is to Be Done?, defending the Marxist concept of revolution and advancing the ideal of a vanguard –the majority agreed w/ him = Bolsheviks (while the minority were called the Mensheviks)

–as events in Russia deteriorated (economic slump, defeat in the Russo-Japanese War), a real revolution unfolded the spark was Bloody Sunday, when the tsar’s troops opened fire on peaceful demonstrators - this led to crises across Russia, leading Nicholas II to create the Duma in an effort to reach a settlement the Duma’s powers were limited and the radicals and conservatives were at odds over the pace and direction of reform: Nicholas continued as an autocrat

In Conclusion Nationalism was the driving force of European politics after 1850 In many cases, nationalism united peoples (Italy, Germany) but in others it drove peoples apart (Austrian Empire, Ottoman Empire, U.S. during Civil War) In many nations, people were gaining more of a say in what their governments were like and in what they did Western European nations were also becoming increasingly urban and industrialized Socialism continued to be a driving force towards reform in many nations