Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

What is good about children today? What is bad about children today? INTRODUCTION

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT Dimensions of Development Biological Cognitive SocioEmotional BioPsychoSocial Development Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death or pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through death.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT ARE THE RESULT OF BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cohort effects: Effects due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age Millennials: The generation born after 1980 that is the first to come of age and enter emerging adulthood in the new millennium Two characteristics Their ethnic diversity Their connection to technology AGE AND COHORT EFFECTS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Nature and nurture: The issue regarding whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture Continuity and discontinuity issue: The issue regarding whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) Early and later experience: The issue of the degree to which early experiences or later experiences are the key determinants of the child’s development ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychoanalytic theories: Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior Early experiences with parents are emphasized THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Parts of personality Id Ego Superego Stage Theory Too much or too little gratification - Fixated at that stage

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FREUDIAN STAGES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Modified and expanded Freud’s theory Successful resolution of life (Psychosocial) crises bolsters sense of identity Differences from psychosexual development Development of self-identity through expanding social interactions Includes conscious and purposeful acts in development Extends stages to eight; throughout adulthood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE-SPAN STAGES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The contributions of psychoanalytic theories include these ideas: Early experiences play an important part in development Family relationships are a central aspect of development Personality can be better understood if it is examined developmentally Activities of the mind are not entirely conscious— unconscious aspects need to be considered In Erikson’s theory, changes take place in adulthood as well as in childhood EVALUATING THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Criticism: The main concepts of psychoanalytic theories are difficult to test scientifically Much of the data used to support psychoanalytic theories come from individuals’ reconstruction of the past and are of unknown accuracy The sexual underpinnings of development are given too much importance The unconscious mind is given too much credit for influencing development Psychoanalytic theories present an image of humans that is too negative and are culture- and gender-biased EVALUATING THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Focuses on children’s mental processes How children perceive and mentally represent the worldz 1.Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Cognitive-developmental theory 2.Information-processing theory 3.Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY Worked with Binet on IQ tests for children Piaget was interested in children’s wrong answers Piaget’s work was not widely read until mid 1950s Difficult to understand Introduced when behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular Piaget’s view of children as “natural physicists” – Children are scientists, testing their view of the world

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S BASIC CONCEPTS Scheme An organized understanding of something Adaptation Organize our world by interacting with the environment 1.Assimilation Fitting something new into an existing scheme 2.Accommodation Adjusting scheme to a new object or event Equilibration Restore equilibrium

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY Influenced by the concepts of computer science Process of encoding information (input) Storage of information (long-term memory) Retrieval of information (short-term memory) Manipulation of information to solve problems (output) Software (mental processes) Hardware (brain) Applications in education

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s theory: A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development Our thoughts are “created” by the culture we live in and the tools we use. COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The primary contributions of cognitive theories are that: They present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious thinking They emphasize the individual’s active construction of understanding Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in children’s thinking Information-processing theory offers detailed descriptions of cognitive processes EVALUATING THE COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Criticism Piaget’s stages are not as uniform as he theorized The cognitive theories do not give adequate attention to individual variations in cognitive development Information-processing theory does not provide an adequate description of developmental changes in cognition Psychoanalytic theorists argue that the cognitive theories do not give enough credit to unconscious thought EVALUATING THE COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE LEARNING PERSPECTIVE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Behaviorism - John B. Watson Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov Operant conditioning - B. F. Skinner Observable Behavior; individual passively learn behaviors Social Cognitive Theory Observational learning – Albert Bandura Active participants in learning

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Pavlov’s classical conditioning A neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus Skinner’s operant conditioning The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence A behavior followed by: A rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur A punishing stimulus is less likely to recur BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Albert Bandura Acquire basic behavior through observational learning Key experiment: Bobo Doll Learning alters child’s mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment Reciprocal Determinism (B  E  P) Child is an active learner

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Contributions of the behavioral and social cognitive theories include: Their emphasis on the importance of scientific research Their focus on environmental determinants of behavior The identification and explanation of observational learning The inclusion of person/cognitive factors EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Criticism Too little emphasis to cognition Too much emphasis to environmental determinants inadequate attention to developmental changes Inadequate recognition to human spontaneity and creativity EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethology: Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods Concern with instinctive behavior patterns Influenced by Charles Darwin, & Konrad Lorenz Pre-wired—instinctive behavior patterns Fixed action patterns (FAPs) Influence of prenatal hormones Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year Imprinting ETHOLOGICAL THEORY

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE ECOLOGICAL THEORY Explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) Reciprocal interactions between individual and their environment. Focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional)

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. A COMPARISON OF THEORIES AND ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable It reduces the likelihood that information will be based on personal beliefs, opinions, and feelings THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Scientific research is based on the scientific method Scientific method: An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information It includes these steps: Conceptualize the problem Collect data Draw conclusions Revise research conclusions and theory THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions Hypothesis: A specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. To be effective, observations have to be systematic Where should be observations made? Laboratory: A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the “real world” are removed Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in real- world settings OBSERVATION

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Survey and interview Standardized test – uniform procedures Case study – in-depth on individual Physiological measures OTHER RESEARCH METHODS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Descriptive research: A research design that has the purpose of observing and recording behavior Correlational research: A research design whose goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics Correlation coefficient: A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables RESEARCH DESIGNS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiment: A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated, while all other factors are held constant Independent variable (gets manipulated) Dependent variable (gets measured) Control group (forms baseline measure) Experimental group (gets manipulated) Random assignment (assignment by chance) RESEARCH DESIGNS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cross-sectional approach: A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time Longitudinal approach: A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Conducting ethical research Protect rights of research subjects Do not cause any harm Adhere to code of ethics Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception RESEARCH CHALLENGES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender bias Preconceived ideas about female and male abilities, magnifying differences found Cultural and ethnic bias Excluding minorities, preconceived ideas of not being ‘average’ Ethnic gloss: Use of ethnic label portraying ethnic groups as more homogeneous than they really are MINIMIZING BIAS