Memory Joel Cooper University of Utah

Memory Is … The mechanism we use to create, maintain and retrieve information about the past Introductory slide to emphasis the important functions of memory. Discuss what life would be like with no memory.

Processes in Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval Processes used to store information in memory Storage Processes used to maintain information in memory Retrieval Processes used to get information back out of memory

Activity 1 Every thing that comes to mind must be written down No talking Ready? Name all the 7 Dwarfs

Activity 2 – Now name them.

Activity 3 Turn your paper over Select the correct names from the following list

From the Following List Identify the names of the seven dwarfs: Crabby Sniffy Gabby Cupid Doc Wheezy Goofy Grouchy Shy Teach Dasher Sleepy Droopy Lazy Pop Wishful Grumpy Bashful Scrappy Nifty Jumpy Gloomy Dopey Silly Sneezy Happy Shorty Smiley Cheerful Dumpy Fearful Stubby Tearful Puffy Burpy

Activity 4 Recall the names of the 7 Dwarfs in order of appearance in the movie.

Activity cont. Activity 1 (Recall) Activity 2 (Cued Recall) Activity 3 (Recognition) Activity 4 (Serial Recall) Let’s look at your errors

Common errors Sound Letter “s” and “d” Meaning Number of syllables Ending in Y Letter “s” and “d” Meaning Different category names Santa’s reindeer Care bears Smurfs

Methods Used to Study Memory Which type of memory test would you rather have? An essay or a multiple choice exam? recall vs. recognition Most students prefer a multiple choice exam. Ask them why? Typically they say it is easier to recognize the correct answer. You then can lead the discussion to the difference between recall and recognition tests.

Recall Tasks Free Recall Cued Recall Serial Recall Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously Cued Recall Recall everything you can that is associated with _______ Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall Serial Recall Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected Need to recall order as well as item names

Recognition Tasks Circle all the words you previously studied Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday

Implicit or Explicit Memory Tasks Involves conscious recollection Participant knows they are trying to retrieve information from their memory Implicit memory tasks Require participants to complete a task The completion of the task indirectly indicates memory

Implicit Memory Tasks Participants are exposed to a word list Tiger Lion Zebra Panda Leopard Elephant After a delay… Participants then complete word puzzles, they are not aware they are a type of memory test Word fragment Completion: C_E_TA_ E_E_ _AN_ _ E _ RA Word Stem Completion: Mon _____ Pan_____ No connection is made to the previously studied list. Participants are simply asked to make a word out of the word fragment. Some of the answers will be words the participant has seen before. Some of the fragments will be words they have not seen. Fragment completion rates of the previously seen words are then compared to completion rates of unseen words. The difference between the scores indicates memory. Answers to Word fragment completion: Cheetah, elephant, zebra; Word stem completion answers: Monkey, Panda.

Models of Memory Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 3 Stage Model of Memory Craik & Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model Baddeley’s Working Memory Model Tulving’s Multiple Memory Systems Model McClelland & Rumelhart’s Connectionist Model

Traditional Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage Model Short Term Memory (STM) Long Term Memory (LTM) Sensory registers Stimuli Information Processing Model

Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research Whole report procedure Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds Identify as many letters as possible Participants typically remembered 4 letters Partial Report Procedure Participants are told to report bottom row Participants were able to report any row requested

Partial Report Technique

Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research G E U L M F S X W P M B D H J Y - Showed matrix for 50 msec - Place a small mark above a letter at different delays Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F. Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

Sensory Stores Iconic store or Visual sensory register Holds visual information for 250 msec longer Information held is pre-categorical Capacity – up to 12 items Information fades quickly Econ or Auditory sensory register Holds auditory information for a 2-3 seconds longer to enable processing hpbahric@cc.owu.edu

Short-Term Memory Rehearsal Attention Rehearsal Retrieval Attention Attend to information in the sensory store, it moves to STM Rehearsal Repeat the information to keep maintained in STM Retrieval Access memory in LTM and place in STM Short Term Memory (STM) Attention Storage & Retrieval

Short-Term Memory Short-term /working memory Limited capacity (7 + or - 2) or 2 sec. Inputs from SR and LTS Consciousness Coding: verbal/spatial Information can be maintained indefinitely, provided it is given constant attention Information decays in 15-20 seconds Rote vs Chunking mnemonics Webster says… Mnemonic : Assisting or designed to assist memory

Short-Term Memory How is information lost? Brown-Peterson Task Decay ==> Time Interference ==> Older displaced by new Brown-Peterson Task Waugh & Norman

Brown-Peterson Task Subjects presented with trigram (XQJ) Experimenter presents number (257) Subject counts backwards by 3’s (2/sec) After x seconds, subjects recall trigram

Brown-Peterson Task VRO 187 UYV 89 IDC 131

Brown-Peterson Task

Proactive Interference in STM Proactive Interference in STM Keppel & Underwood (1962) Replicated the Peterson & Peterson Task varying the time delay to recall Analysis was done by trial number (1st trial, 2nd trial, 3rd trial, etc.) Found support for proactive interference

Loss or Decay? Waugh & Norman -- Loss in B-P task could be due to decay or interference, because both covaried with retention interval Independently varied time and number of intervening items Does loss follow time or number of items?

Waugh & Norman Task Subjects presented with string of digits Digits read at 1 or 4 per second (time) Does recall vary as a function of time or items? 1 per second 6 2 9 4 1 8 3 4 8 1 0 4 2 6 7 3 ( 16 sec ) 4 per second 6294183481042673 ( 4 sec ) Probe Digit : 9 Response : 4

Waugh & Norman Task

Loss from STM Loss is largely due to interference: Old information is replaced by new Rehearsal moves info to head of buffer

Long-Term Memory Capacity Duration Thus far limitless Potentially permanent Long Term Memory (LTM)

Long-Term Store Information comes from STS Conscious transfer -- Explicit memory Unconscious transfer -- Implicit memory Large capacity Can information be lost from LTS? Poor retrieval cues Memories overwritten?

Let’s Test Your LTM! You will see several words, one at a time Do whatever you can to try and remember as many of the words as you can At the end of the list, try to recall as many words as you can The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth. The following are his instructions for this demonstration. ALL-PURPOSE MEMORY DEMONSTRATION I first saw this demonstration at a workshop presentation by Douglas Bernstein from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He could not locate the original source of this demonstration, which was introduced to him by one of his teaching assistants in introductory psychology. Before presenting the words, tell students that you will show them a list of words, and their task is to memorize the entire list. Have the students recall the list immediately after you present the last word; do not use a distractor task, otherwise you may not produce a recency effect. Ask about ten volunteers to report their recall for the words, expose each word individually, and ask for a show of hands from those who recalled the words. Ask the class to explain why the volunteers did well in recalling these words prior to exposing the line that describes the memory effect. Here is a brief explanation of each memory effect, with some elaboration you may use in your discussion: Primacy effect. The words “bed” and “clock” were the first two words in this list. Most students will recall these words due to the greater opportunity for rehearsing these words. Recency effect. The words “snore” and “pillow” were the last two words in the list. Most students will recall these words because they are still in their immediate attention (short-term memory) during recall. You may wish to ask students how recall for these words could be disrupted. The answer is by introducing a distractor task after presentation of the list. Repetition/Rehearsal. Words in the middle of a list are often not well-recalled, however, most students will recall the word “night”. This word was repeated three times in the list, so students had additional opportunity to rehearse this word compared to other words in the middle of the list. Distinctiveness. Most of the words are associated with each other. However, one word in the list, “artichoke” is so different than the others that it is often recalled, even though it appears in the middle of the list. You may discuss this as an example of deeper processing of a word that is distinctive, salient, and unusual. Semantic Organization. First ask the volunteers if they recalled the word “toss”. (You may want to include the entire class in this question, to produce a larger potential response rate.) Then, ask those who recalled “toss” whether they followed recall of the word “toss” immediately by recall of the word “turn”. There will be several students who recall the words as a pair, even though they are separated in the list and “turn” precedes “toss”. You may discuss this as a form of semantic organization (which is more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 9 of Reed’s text). I also tie it into the definition of elaboration of memory. The words are very highly associated and easily connected together in students’ recall. “False Memory”. Ask the whole class if anyone recalled the word “sleep”. Ask those students who recalled this word to attempt to recall where in the list the word appeared. Was it in the first half or the last half of the list? Most students who recall the word will report that they “know” it is in the list, but they cannot “remember” exactly where the word appeared. You may then discuss current research by Jacoby, Roediger, and other researchers on the “know/remember” distinction. You may also tie this into a discussion of other, more elaborate examples of possible false memory (e.g., the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, and the current controversy surrounding adult memory of childhood sexual abuse).

Bed Clock Dream Night Turn Mattress Snooze Nod Artichoke Insomnia Rest Toss Night Alarm Nap Snore Pillow

Write down the words you saw

Words Bed Clock Dream Night Turn Mattress Snooze Nod Artichoke Insomnia Rest Toss Night Alarm Nap Snore Pillow

Memory Demonstration Did you Recall? Bed or Clock Snore or Pillow Night Artichoke Toss and Turn Sleep Explanation Primacy Recency Spacing Effect Distinctiveness Clustering False Memory

Serial Position Curve

Effects of Rehearsal Rhundus -- subjects rehearsed outloud Primacy curve matched rehearsal curve Primacy determined by transfer to LTM

Effects of Distracters Glanzer -- distractor task at end of list Recency portion of curve abolished Recency determined by readout from STM

Serial Position Curves Primacy determined by transfer to LTM Recency determined by readout from STM

Levels of Processing Model of Memory Craik & Lockhart (1972) Process level different strengths of memories Deep processing better memory; elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus; the memory trace is fragile and quickly decays Maintenance rehearsal (Rote) vs. Elaborative rehearsal Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing. A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11, 671-684.

Support for Levels of Processing Craik & Watkins (1973) Participants listened to lists of words Task was to recall the last word in the list which began with a particular letter The number of intervening words between words beginning with the target letter was varied Assumption Whenever a word beginning with the target letter would be encountered, it would be maintained via rehearsal in STM until the next word beginning with the target letter was heard.

Craik & Watkins (1973) Results Recall of words was independent of the length of time (the number of intervening words) it was maintained in STM Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal did not automatically lead to LTM Levels-of-Processing Interpretation: Students rehearsed the words without elaborating on the meaning of the words, only concentrating on the initial consonant sound—rehearsing at a shallow level

Depth of Processing Craik & Lockhart LEVEL QUESTION - Structural Capital letters - Phonemic Rhyme - Categorical Type of fish - Sentence Fit in sentence * ** *** ****

Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

Criticisms of LOP Model Circular definition of levels Transfer appropriate processing effect Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test  Memory performance also depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test   Encoding Task Recognition Rhyme Semantic 0.83 0.31 0.62 0.49

Visuospatial Sketchpad Working Memory Model Baddeley & Hitch, 1974 Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketchpad Central Executive Spatial - Where Visual - What Phonological store - 2 sec. Norman and Shallice – 1986 Action Plan Contention Scheduling Supervisory attentional system (SAS) Articulatory control process

Working Memory Model Articulatory Loop Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Used to maintain information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial information Episodic Buffer Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated episode between systems using different codes

Working Memory Model Central Executive Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

Working Memory Model Support Baddeley (1986) Participants studied two different list types 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top 5 syllables: university, opportunity, aluminum, constitutional, auditorium Reading rate seemed to determine recall performance Supports conceptualization of an articulatory loop

Working Memory Model Support Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Dual-task paradigm Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to tap repeatedly a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time

Multiple-Memory Systems Model Tulving (1972) Semantic Memory General knowledge Facts, definitions, historical dates Episodic Memory Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday) Procedural Memory Memories on how to do something (skiing, biking, tying your shoe)

Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996) PET technology to look at episodic and semantic memory Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic memory tasks while being monitored by PET   Results  Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory Nyberg, L., Cabeza, R., & Tulving, E. (1996). PET studies of encoding and retrieval: The HERA model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 135-148.

Connectionist Perspective Parallel distributed processing model Memory uses a network Meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network Spreading Activation Network Model Supported by priming effects

Deficient Memory Amnesias Retrograde Amnesia Infantile Amnesia Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma Infantile Amnesia Inability to recall events of young childhood Antereograde Amnesia No memory for events that occur after the trauma

Amnesia Studies Study antereograde amnesiacs using implicit and explicit memory tests Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit) They did not remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals

Hippocampus and Memory Critical for integration and consolidation Essential for declarative memory Without the hippocampus only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur