1. Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods

2. Memory Is …
The mechanism we use to create, maintain and retrieve information about the past
Introductory slide to emphasis the important functions of memory. Discuss what life would be like with no memory.

3. Processes in Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval
Processes used to store information in memory
Storage
Processes used to maintain information in memory
Retrieval
Processes used to get information back out of memory

4. Methods Used to Study Memory
Which type of memory test would you rather have?
An essay or a multiple choice exam?
The difference between these two types of tests captures the difference between a recall task and a recognition test
Most students prefer a multiple choice exam. Ask them why? Typically they say it is easier to recognize the correct answer. You then can lead the discussion to the difference between recall and recognition tests.

5. Methods Used to Study Memory
Free Recall
Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously
Cued Recall
Recall everything you can that is associated with the Civil War
Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall
Serial Recall
Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected
Need to recall order as well as item names

6. Recognition Tasks Circle all the words you previously studied
Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday
The participant selects from a list of items they have previously seen

7. Implicit Versus Explicit Memory Tasks
Involves conscious recollection
Participant knows they are trying to retrieve information from their memory
Implicit memory tasks
Require participants to complete a task
The completion of the task indirectly indicates memory

8. Implicit Memory Tasks Participants are exposed to a word list Tiger
Lion
Zebra
Panda
Leopard
Elephant
After a delay…
Participants then complete word puzzles, they are not aware they are a type of memory test
Word fragment Completion:
C_E_TA_
E_E_ _A_ N_
_ E _ R A
Word Stem Completion:
Mon _____
Pan_____
No connection is made to the previously studied list. Participants are simply asked to make a word out of the word fragment.
Some of the answers will be words the participant has seen before. Some of the fragments will be words they have not seen. Fragment completion rates of the previously seen words are then compared to completion rates of unseen words. The difference between the scores indicates memory.
Answers to Word fragment completion: Cheetah, elephant, zebra; Word stem completion answers: Monkey, Panda.

9. Procedural Memory Knowing how to do something Ride a bike Skateboard
Skiing

10. Methods to Assess Procedural Memory
Rotary-Pursuit task
Keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk
Mirror-tracing task
Watch mirror image to trace a figure

11. Process-Dissociations in Memory
Single dissociations
Single variable effects one expression of memory, explicit or implicit, but not the other.
Double dissociations
Single variable has opposite effects on explicit and implicit memory.
Demonstrate that two processes are mediated by separate brain systems.

12. Models of Memory Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 3 Stage Model of Memory
Craik & Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
Tulving’s Multiple Memory Systems Model
McClelland & Rumelhart’s Connectionist Model

13. Traditional Model of Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage Model
Short -Term
Store
Long -Term
Store
Sensory Store
Stimuli
Information Processing Model

14. Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research
Whole report procedure
Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
Identify as many letters as possible
Participants typically remembered 4 letters
Partial Report Procedure
Participants are told to report bottom row
Participants were able to report any row requested

15. Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration
A matrix of 12 letters and numbers will be briefly flashed on the next few slides
As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location
The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth.

16. Whole Report
Here’s where the letters and numbers will appear-- Keep your eyes on the “X” on the next slide
X X X X
Instructor Note: Once the students have written down all they can remember just click the mouse to see the matrix and determine how many items the students remember.

17. X
B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
O 4 M Y

18. B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
O 4 M Y

19. Partial Report – No Delay
For the next demonstration, report only the top, middle, or bottom row. The row to report will be identified by markers IMMEDIATELY after you see the letters.
X X X X
Instructor Note: Once the students have written down all they can remember just click the mouse to see the matrix and determine how many items the students remember.

20. X
> <
2 V 9 R
Q M 7 L
> K H 5 F <

21. 2 V 9 R
Q M 7 L
> K H 5 F <

22. Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research
N M L C W D P Q
A X I N Y K J U
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Place a small mark above a letter at different delays
Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F.
Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

23. G E U L M F S X W P M B D H J Y Second Demonstration
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Place a small mark above a letter at different delays
Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F.
Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

24. Sensory Stores Iconic store or Visual sensory register
Holds visual information for 250 msec longer
Information held is pre-categorical
Capacity – up to 12 items
Information fades quickly
Econ or Auditory sensory register
Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds longer to enable processing

25. Short-Term Memory Attention Rehearsal Retrieval Rehearsal
Attend to information in the sensory store, it moves to STM
Rehearsal
Repeat the information to keep maintained in STM
Retrieval
Access memory in LTM and place in STM
Short Term
Memory (STM)
Attention
Storage & Retrieval

26. Research on Short-Term Memory
Miller (1956)
Examined memory capacity
7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
Chunking - organize the input into larger units
Exceeds capacity
Reorganize by chunking.
Student using a chunking strategy can use LTM of important dates to remember a longer string of numbers.
College Graduation
Birth-year
H.S graduation

27. Storage Capacity of STM
Vogel, Woodman & Luck (2001)
Used colors and orientations

28. Vogel, Woodman & Luck Results(2001)
Can retain 3-4 colors or orientations
Stores integrated objects, not just features

29. Long-Term Memory Capacity Duration Thus far limitless
Potentially permanent
Long Term
Memory (LTM)

30. Bahrick’s Research on Very Long Term Memory
High school year books containing all of the names and photos of the students were used to assess memory
392 ex-high school students (17-74) took 4 different memory tests:
Free recall of the names
A photo recognition test where they were asked to identify former classmates
A name recognition test
A name and photo matching test
For some of the participants, it was as long as 48 years since they graduated from High school
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, P.O., & Wittlinger, R. P. (1975). Fifty years of memory for names and faces: A cross-sectional approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 104(1),

31. Bahrick et. al., (1975) Results
90% accuracy in face and name recognition after 34 years
80% accuracy for name recognition after 48 years
40% accuracy for face recognition after 48 years
60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years
30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years
Note how the recognition results differ from the free recall results.

32. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Different ways to process information lead to different strengths of memories
Deep processing leads to better memory
elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory
Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus
the memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing. A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11,

33. Support for Levels of Processing
Craik & Watkins (1973)
Participants listened to lists of words
Task was to recall the last word in the list which began with a particular letter
The number of intervening words between words beginning with the target letter was varied
Assumption
Whenever a word beginning with the target letter would be encountered, it would be maintained via rehearsal in STM until the next word beginning with the target letter was heard.

34. Craik & Watkins (1973) Results
Recall of words was independent of the length of time (the number of intervening words) it was maintained in STM
Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal did not automatically lead to LTM
Levels-of-Processing Interpretation: Students rehearsed the words without elaborating on the meaning of the words, only concentrating on the initial consonant sound—rehearsing at a shallow level

35. Support for Levels of Processing
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Participants studied a list in 3 different ways
Structural: Is the word in capital letters?
Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog?
Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence? The ______ is delicious.
A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory

36. Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

37. Criticisms of LOP Model
Circular definition of levels
Transfer appropriate processing effect
Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977)
Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme
Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test 
Memory performance also depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test
Encoding Task
Recognition
Rhyme
Semantic
0.83
0.31
0.62
0.49

38. Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model
Central Executive
Articulatory Loop
Visual Scribe
Visuo-spatial
Sketch Pad
Phonological
Store
Episodic Buffer
Baddeley (1986)
Baddeley’s model of working memory contains several elements: A central executive, auditory working memory, visuo-spatial working memory, and an episodic Buffer.
Material can also enter conscious workspace from long-term memory.

39. Working Memory Model Articulatory Loop Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Used to maintain information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal
Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial information
Episodic Buffer
Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated episode between systems using different codes

40. Working Memory Model Central Executive
Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones
Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts
Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

41. Working Memory Model Support
Baddeley (1986)
Participants studied two different list types
1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top
5 syllables: university, opportunity, aluminum, constitutional, auditorium
Reading rate seemed to determine recall performance
Supports conceptualization of an articulatory loop

42. Working Memory Model Support
Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Dual-task paradigm
Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to tap repeatedly a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time

43. Techniques Examining Working Memory
Fig. 5.5: Tasks and working memory.

44. Tulving’s Multiple-Memory Systems Model
Semantic Memory
General knowledge
Facts, definitions, historical dates
Episodic Memory
Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)
Procedural Memory
Memories on how to do something (skiing, biking, tying your shoe)

45. Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support
Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)
PET technology to look at episodic and semantic memory
Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic memory tasks while being monitored by PET  
Results 
Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval
Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory
Nyberg, L., Cabeza, R., & Tulving, E. (1996). PET studies of encoding and retrieval: The HERA model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3,

46. Connectionist Perspective
Parallel distributed processing model
Memory uses a network
Meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network
Spreading Activation Network Model
Supported by priming effects

47. Koriat & Goldsmith (1996)
Suggest a change in the metaphors used to conceptualize memory
Propose a correspondence metaphor
Emphasize function of memory
Emphasize how memory works in real world
Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996). The correspondence metaphor of memory: Right, wrong, or useful?  Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19,

48. Exceptional Memory Case studies of mnemonists
Studies of skilled memory

49. Case Studies S. (Luria, 1968) Rajan Mahadevan Long strings of words
Remembered over years
Rajan Mahadevan
Can recite pi to 31,811 places
No forgetting on matrices up to 20x20 digits
Original studies documenting exceptional memory case studies
Luria A.R. (1968). The mind of the mnemonist. New York: Basic Books.
Thompson, C. P., Cowan, T., Frieman, J., Mahadevan, R. S. Vogl, R. J., & Frieman, J. (19910, Rajan: A report on an exceptional memory. Memory and Language, 30,

50. Deficient Memory Amnesias Retrograde Amnesia Infantile Amnesia
Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma
Infantile Amnesia
Inability to recall events of young childhood
Antereograde Amnesia
No memory for events that occur after the trauma

51. Amnesia Studies
Study antereograde amnesiacs using implicit and explicit memory tests
Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit)
They did not remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals

52. Alzheimer’s Disease
Leads to memory loss and dementia in older population
Atrophy of the cortical tissue
Alzheimer brains shows abnormal fibers that appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)
The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to disruption of impulses in neurons
Over the age of 65 are labeled ‘late onset’
‘Early onset’ is rare but can affect those in their mid 30's and in middle age

53. Alzheimer’s Disease Symptoms (Gradual, Continuous & Irreversible)
Memory loss
Problems doing familiar tasks
Problems with language
Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
Poor or decreased judgment
Problems with abstract thinking
Misplacing things often, such as keys
Changes in mood and behavior
Changes in personality
These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer's when it affects daily life

54. Hippocampus and Memory
Critical for integration and consolidation
Essential for declarative memory
Without the hippocampus only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur