Motivation (definition) ‘… those psychological processes that cause the arousal, the direction, and the persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.”

Motivation Theories Need Theories Herzberg Two-Factor Theory Cognitive Process Theories Behavioral Theory Job Characteristics Model

Need (or Content) Theories Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

Maslow’s theory A Deprivation Theory An Orderly Hierarchy No Retreat Made in America

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Relatedness Growth Deprivation Theory Person can descend hierarchy Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Satisfiers Dissatisfiers

McClelland’s Theory Achievement Power Affiliation Individually Unique socialized personalized Affiliation Individually Unique A Profile of Needs Socially Acquired

Content Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Need for Achievement Esteem Need for Power Belongingness Relatedness Hygienes Need for Affiliation Safety Existence Physiological

Process theories Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Goal Setting

Expectancy Theory of Motivation E-to-P Expectancy P-to-O Expectancy Outcomes & Valences Outcome 1 + or - Effort Performance Outcome 2 + or - Outcome 3 + or -

Expectancy Theory Expectancy Terms Probability Expectancy Instrumentality Valence Effort to Performance Performance to Outcome

Expectancy Issues Multiple outcomes are likely Perception of outcome values determine choice It is a multiplicative model (zero is significant) Blockages possible from individual and organization

Expectancy Theory in Practice Increasing the E-to-P expectancy training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance Increasing outcome valences Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes

Equity theory I/O = I/O

Equity theory: An exchange theory Equity Terms: Individual Referent Other (comparison) Ratio Inputs Outcomes

Responses to Inequity Change Inputs Change Outcomes Cognitively Distort own I/O Withdraw Acting on Other Change Referent (comparison) Other

Effective Goal Setting Specific Results-oriented Task Effort Performance Challenging Commitment Participation

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance High Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty Task Performance Low Moderate Challenging Impossible Goal Difficulty

Rewards – are typically based on: Membership & Seniority Job Status Internal & External equity Competency Skill-based pay Task Performance

Performance-Based Rewards Individual: - piece rate - commissions - merit pay - bonuses: Team - gainsharing - bonuses Organizational - profit sharing - ESOP (employee owned)

The Trouble with Rewards Rewards Punish Rewards rupture relationships Rewards ignore reasons Rewards discourage risk-taking Rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

Therefore…. Measure Performance Carefully Ensure that Rewards are Relevant Use Team Rewards Ensure that rewards are valued Watch for unintended consequences

Job Characteristics Model Core Job Characteristics Critical Psychological States Outcomes Skill variety Task identity Task significance Meaningfulness Work motivation Growth satisfaction General effectiveness Autonomy Responsibility Feedback from job Knowledge of results Individual differences

Examples of Job Re-Design Job Rotation Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

Reasons for Job Rotation Increases motivation through skill variety Fewer repetitive strain injuries Creates multi-skilled work force

Job Enrichment Strategies Empowering employees giving employees more autonomy feeling of control and self-efficacy Forming natural work units completing an entire task assigning employees to specific clients Establishing client relationships employees put in direct contact with clients

Obstacles to Job Design Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics More team than individual job design Resistance to change Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization

Elements of Self-Leadership Reinforcement Self- Monitoring Designing Natural Rewards Constructive Thought Patterns Personal Goal Setting

Albert Ellis’s Fallacies – bad self-talk Fallacy of Perfection Fallacy of Approval Fallacy of Should Fallacy of Overgeneralization Fallacy of Causation Fallacy of Helplessness Fallacy of Catastrophic Expectations