1. Motivation

2. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
How does the theory work?
What research support does this theory have?
What are the managerial implications of this theory?
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Probably the best-known conceptualization of human needs. Abraham Maslow was a clinical psychologist who introduced a theory of personal adjustment, the need hierarchy theory, based on his observations of patients throughout the years.
His premise was that if people grow up in an environment where their needs are not met, they will be unlikely to function as healthy, well-adjusted individuals.
The theory suggests that there are five human needs and that these are arranged in such a way that lower, more basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become activated. The lowest need that is not well gratified will tend to dominate behavior.
Physiological needs:
At the bottom of the hierarchy are physiological needs.
They refer to satisfying fundamental biological drives (e.g., the need for food, air, water, and shelter).
Organizations must provide employees with a salary that affords them adequate living conditions. Similarly, sufficient opportunities to rest (e.g., coffee breaks) and to engage in physical activity (e.g., fitness and exercise facilities) also are important for people to meet these needs.
Safety needs:
Safety needs refer to the need for a secure environment that is free from threats of physical or psychological harm.
Organizations can provide employees with safety equipment (e.g., hard hats and goggles), life and health insurance, and security forces (e.g., police and fire protection). Similarly, jobs that provide tenure (e.g., teaching) and no-layoff agreements provide a psychological security blanket that helps to satisfy safety needs.
Social needs:
Social needs are the needs to be affiliative (e.g., to have friends, to be loved and accepted by other people).
Organizations may encourage participation in social events (e.g. office picnics or parties).
As a group, physiological needs, safety needs, and social needs are known deficiency needs. Maslow’s idea was that if these needs are not met, an individual will not develop into a healthy person.
In contrast, the two highest-order needs, the ones at the very top of the hierarchy, are known as growth needs. Gratification of these needs to said to help a person to grow and to develop to his or her fullest potential.
Esteem needs:
Esteem needs, are a person’s need to develop self-respect and to gain the approval of others--the desire to achieve success, have prestige, and be recognized by others.
Companies may have awards banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Giving monetary bonuses--even small ones--in recognition of employees’ suggestions for improvement also helps to promote their esteem. Nonmonetary awards (e.g., trophies and plaques) provide reminders of an employee’s important contributions as well and continuously fulfill esteem needs.
Self-actualization needs:
This is the need to become all that one can be, to develop one’s fullest potential. Individuals who have self-actualized are working at their peak, and they represent the most effective use of an organization’s human resources.
Research?
Research has supported Maslow’s distinction between deficiency needs and growth needs. Research also has shown that not all people can satisfy their higher-order needs on the job. For example, lower-level managers were able to only satisfy deficiency needs, not higher order growth needs, whereas senior managers were able to achieve meet all needs. However, the idea that different needs are activated in this order has not received much support.
Implications?
Regardless of whether or not the order matters, it is important to consider that if a need is satisfied, it may lose its motivational potential, so managers are encouraged to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.

3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory How does this theory work?
What is the research support?
What are the managerial implications?
Existence: Desire for physiological and materialistic well-being
Relatedness: Desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others
Growth: Desire to grow and use one’s abilities to their fullest potential
Alderfer proposed that motivation is a function of three basic needs (listed from lowest to highest):
a. existence needs (the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being),
b. relatedness needs (the desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others),
c. growth needs (the desire to grow as a human being and to use one’s abilities to their fullest potential).
How does the theory work?
ERG theory does not assume needs are related to each other in a stairstep hierarchy, rather more than one need may be activated at a time. It also adds a frustration-regression component, meaning that frustration of higher-order needs can influence the desire for lower-order needs. So, for example, if you work really hard to get a promotion at work which would satisfy your growth needs and you don’t get it, you may regress to social needs and seek support and consolation from your coworkers. You may also demand more in the way of existence needs to compensate like higher salary, flexible working arrangement, etc.
Also, growth needs that are met start an enrichment cycle such that you will seek to satisfy even higher levels of growth needs.
What is the research support?
Research generates mixed support. There has been evidence to support the existence of this enrichment cycle and the regression and progression of these needs but not exactly the way the theory suggests.
What are the managerial implications?
Managers should be mindful that employees may be motivated to pursue lower-level needs because they are frustrated with a higher-order need. Additionally, people are motivated by different needs at different times in their lives. Managers should customize their reward and recognition programs to meet employees’ varying needs.

4. McClelland’s Need Theory
The Need for Achievement
Desire to accomplish something difficult
The Need for Affiliation
Desire to spend time in social relationships and activities
The Need for Power
Desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve
McClelland identified three needs that individuals have at differing levels. He argued that each of us have these needs but at varying degrees. These are:
nAch – need moderately difficult goals, strong desire for performance feedback, assume personal responsibility for performing a task or solving a problem; Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics: a preference for tasks of moderate difficulty, situations in which their performance is due to their own efforts, and a desire for more performance feedback on their successes and failures.
nAff – strong desire for approval and reassurance from others, tendency to conform to wishes of others when pressured by people whose friendships they value, have a sincere interest in the feelings of others.
nPow – influence and direct others, exercise control over others, maintaining leader-follower relations
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5. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model
Hygiene Factors job characteristics associated with job dissatisfaction
Salary
Supervisory relations
Working conditions
Motivators job characteristics associated with job satisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Hygiene factors are associated with job dissatisfaction and are affiliated with the work context (e.g., salary, supervisor relations).
Motivators are associated with job satisfaction and are affiliated with the content of the task being performed (e.g., achievement, recognition, responsibility).
What other need theory we’ve just talked about is most closely related to the Hygiene factors?
Maslow’s deficiency needs (Physiological, Safety, Social/Love) & Alderfer’s Existence and Relatedness needs
So Maslow’s Growth and self-actualization and Alderfer’s Growth needs are most closely aligned with Herzberg’s motivators.

6. Comparison of Content Theories of Motivation
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Motivator--Hygiene
Theory
Needs Hierarchy Theory
ERG Theory
Self-
Actualization
Growth
Need for
Achievement
Motivators
Esteem
Need for
Power
Belongingness
Relatedness
Need for
Affiliation
Hygienes
Safety
Existence
This slide is really just to help you make sense of all the theories we’ve talked about so far so you can see the relationships between them. Although they have many similarities, as we’ve discussed,they are different in the way they are suggested to work.
Now let’s move on to discuss the Process theories of motivation…. Go to next slide
Physiological

7. Equity Theory
Equity theory – people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges
People will be motivated to the extent their perceived inputs to outcomes is in balance
A. Compare personal outcomes to inputs.
B. Compare your outcomes to relevant others:
Comparisons to teammates or coworkers
Comparisons to another group (e.g. department/unit)
Comparisons to others in your field or occupational.
Equity theory purports that people are most motivated when their perceived inputs equal outputs and is equitable to that of relevant others.
Inputs: effort, skills, experience (seniority), education
Outputs: praise, recognition, pay, benefits, promotions, increased status.
Relevant others are co-workers or others outside the organization in comparable circumstances (background, field, level of experience, etc.)
So you may make comparisons between level of effort and rewards for your direct co-worker/team member.
Compare your effort and rewards in your department to other departments – for example I had a friend who worked in the marketing department of a small benefits firm. She learned the salaries and perks new undergraduates in the IT department were making and she perceived an inequity. I tried to help her balance that perception by saying that she wouldn’t want to that type of work and that she derives pleasure from the work she does which has value.
Or you may make comparisons between other people in your field who work for other organizations.

8. Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed
Interactional Justice extent to which people feel fairly treated when procedures are implemented
Procedural Justice the perceived fairness of the process and procedure used to make allocation decisions
Organizational justice: People’s perceptions of fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions of how decisions are made regarding the distribution of outcomes and the perceived fairness of those outcomes themselves.
Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of the way rewards are distributed among people.
Procedural Justice: Perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes.
Procedural justice has to do with perceptions of the process. So if a performance management system is based on objective agreed upon goals being achieved, and they aren’t, you may be unhappy with the outcome of the process but will believe that it is fair. For example, studies have shown that applicants who are rejected from organizations will maintain a positive impression of that company if they feel that the process was fair and they were treated well.
It is possible to be unhappy with the outcome but not feel that it is unfair. For example, a company whose earnings are very low and has to reduce raises to avoid laying people off, the employee may not be happy with the low raise but will not perceive it as unfair because they realize the same is happening to everyone else and there is a good reason – poor performance of the company.
Distributive justice has to do with the outcomes of the process. It is possible to feel that the performance management process was fair but that you didn’t get the outcomes that matched your perceived inputs. Alternatively, you could feel that the process wasn’t fair in that you received special treatment because of your friendship with your boss, but still be happy with the outcome.
Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine organizational outcomes.
Your book provides a good example of this, that is the company who laid off people without communicating with them directly and instead sent security guards to escort people out. An employee of 30 years sabotaged the company’s computer systems causing 20 million dollars in damage.

9. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Instrumentality
Outcomes & Valences
Outcome 1
+ or -
Effort
Performance
Outcome 2
+ or -
Expectancy: The belief that one’s efforts will positively influence one’s performance.
Instrumentality: An individual’s beliefs regarding the likelihood of being rewarded in accord with his or her own level of performance.
Valence: The value a person places on the rewards he or she expects to receive from an organization.
Other Determinants: Skills and abilities, Role perceptions, opportunities to perform
You can see that the effort to performance link is dependent on expectancy which is the extent someone thinks their effort will relate to performance.
Then, assuming they do reach the performance level they want, they have to believe that that performance will result in outcomes. But then they also have to care about those outcomes. So if someone works really hard an earns a lot of money that may be great. But if they really want is more flexible hours, they may be willing to forgo the big raises to achieve work/life balance.
All of these factors predict whether someone will be motivated but their actual job performance is also dependent on their skills and abilities, and external factors like the opportunities and circumstances that exist within their company. For example, if there is confusion over the employee’s role he/she may be performing well at what they think they are supposed to be doing but not receive good performance evaluations because that is not what the boss thought they should be doing. (e.g., training new employees, versus doing routine paperwork the boss feels is more important or a sales person could be trying very hard but due to a small territory or economic downturn, has lower-than-expected sales.)
Show Office Space when Peter is walking into the room to meet the consultants. Set this up by describing how Peter is very disenchanted with his job and hates it and has just gotten hypnotized where he’s told to forget everything and be happy. Prior to this the movie opens by his boss telling him that he forgot to put a cover sheet on his “TPS” reports and several people point that out to him throughout the day and keep asking him if he got “the memo” on that.
Debrief by asking ……
What performance links are broken for Peter? Performance to rewards is because he doesn’t see how his performance does anything for him in terms of a reward.
What about his Effort to Performance link? His being micromanaged by eight bosses probably doesn’t do much for his effort to performance link because they seem to not have much faith in him to be able to do the most minor task.
Outcome 3
+ or -

10. Implications of Expectancy Theory

11. Goal-Setting Theory Goal what an individual is trying to accomplish
As we noted during the discussion of expectancy theory, setting goals is an effective way of directing one’s attention and energy in a purposeful, focused way and tends to result in higher performance and achievement.

12. Job Design Approaches to Motivation
Job Design: Changing the content or process of a specific job to increase job satisfaction and performance
Motivational strategies:
Job Rotation moving employees from one specialized job to another
Job Enlargement putting more variety into a job
Job Enrichment building achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement into the work
Job rotation involves moving employees from one specialized job to another.
The purpose of job rotation is to give employees greater variety in their work. Workers are able to perform two or more separate jobs on a rotating basis. GE and Verizon have a program like this for the MBA level new hires. They move them around the country so they can get exposed to various aspects of the business.
Advantages include greater worker flexibility and easier scheduling. The proposed benefits of job rotation have not been adequately explored.
Job enlargement involves putting more variety into a workers’ job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.
Job enlargement is also called horizontal loading.
By itself, job enlargement does not have a significant and lasting positive impact on job performance.
Job enrichment is the practical application of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction and involves modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.
Job enrichment is also called vertical loading.
The differences between enlargement and enrichment are represented here…. Go to next slide.
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© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.