Social and Personality Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 10: Social and Personality Development in Middle Childhood

In This Chapter Theories of social and personality development Self-concept Advances in social cognition The social world of the school-aged child Influences beyond family and peers

Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Theories Freud: challenge is to form emotional bonds with peers and move beyond sole earlier formed bonds Erikson: challenge is to develop a sense of competence and willingness to work toward goal Industry versus Inferiority Stage Failure leads to feelings of inferiority in school or social settings

Theories of Social and Personality Development Trait Approach What trait or traits describe you best? Trait: stable pattern of responses across situations Longitudinal research suggests some stability Emerge during middle childhood

The Big Five Personality Traits Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness

These three mutually influence one another Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives Bandura and reciprocal determinism Three components Person component (traits) Behavior Environment These three mutually influence one another Longitudinal research suggests some stability Traits emerge during middle childhood

Figure 10.1 Bandura’s Determinism Model

Self-Concept The Psychological Self Psychological self: Person’s understanding of his or her enduring psychological characteristics More complex Comparisons in self-descriptions Less tied to external features Comparisons in self-descriptions – “I’m smarter than most kids.” A person’s understanding of his or her enduring psychological characteristics Emerges from early to middle childhood Becomes more complex Uses comparisons in self-descriptions Less tied to external features More centered on feelings and ideas

Self-Concept Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy: Individual’s belief in their capacity to cause intended events Social comparisons Encouragement from valued sources Actual experiences Social comparisons are important Encouragement from valued sources, such as parents Actual experiences have the greatest impact

Self-Concept The Valued Self Self-esteem Global evaluative component of self-worth Begins to develop by age 7 Nature of self-esteem

Self-Concept Self-Esteem Key components Discrepancy between what desires and perceived achievement Perceived support from important people Key components The amount of discrepancy between what a child desires and what child thinks he has achieved Overall support the child feels she receives from important people, especially parents and peers Self-esteem is stable in the short term but somewhat less so over periods of several years

Self-Concept Origins of Self-Esteem Direct experience with success or failure Labels and judgments from others Value attached to some skill or quality affected by peers’ and parents’ attitudes Child’s own direct experience with success or failure Labels and judgments from others Value a child attaches to some skill or quality is affected by peers’ and parents’ attitudes

Figure 10.2 Harter’s Research on Social Support, Domain Values and Self Esteem

Advances in Social Cognition Self-Concept The Child as Psychologist Focuses on internal traits and motivations of others Better understanding that same person plays different roles in life Less emphasis on external appearance Begins about age 7 Better understanding that same person plays different roles in life, such as parent and spouse

Figure 10.3 Changes in Children’s Descriptions of Others

Self-Concept Moral Reasoning: Piaget Moral reasoning: Judgments about rightness and wrongness of specific actions Moral realism Moral relativism Moral reasoning is the process of making judgments about the rightness or wrongness of specific acts. Piaget studied children playing games to help understand moral development. Moral realism – beginning of the middle childhood period. Moral realism: Belief that rules can’t be changed because they come from authority figures Belief that violating rules leads to punishment Moral relativism: Realization that rules can be changed if all agree Punishment doesn’t come by rules violations—but by being caught! Accidents are not caused by “naughty” behavior Moral relativism begins at age 8. Children make up rules to games – but everyone follows the same rules when playing the game. 8-year-olds do weigh intentionality when making moral judgments. 12-year-olds tend to remain egocentric in their moral reasoning.

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Family Relationships Parental Expectations Parents recognize children’s increasing abilities to self-regulate Culture may play a role in the age of expected behaviors Parental Expectations Parents recognize children’s increasing abilities to self-regulate Ability to conform to parental standards of behavior without direct supervision Parents must be good at self-regulations Higher expectations with parental monitoring increases self-regulation Culture may play a role in the age of expected behaviors

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Family Relationships Parental Expectations Boys given more autonomy Girls held more accountable Parental authoritative style more often produces socially competent children Parental authoritative style more often produces socially competent children Children both assertive and responsible in relationships

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Family Relationships Only Children and Siblings Only children As well adjusted as children with siblings Siblings Positively contribute to children’s social and emotional understanding Caregiver relationship – one sibling is a quasi-parent for the other. Buddy relationship – both members of pair try to be like each other. Critical or conflicting relationship – teasing, quarreling, and attempts at domination. Only children As well adjusted as children with siblings Tend to have higher achievement test scores Siblings Affectionate sibling relationships mitigate stressful events such as parental divorce Positively contribute to children’s social and emotional understanding Rival relationship – low in any form of friendliness or support. Casual relationship – siblings have relatively little to do with each other.

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Friendships Peer importance increases in middle childhood “Best Friend” emerges Friendships depend on reciprocal trust by age 10 Friends help with problem solving and conflict management Children are open, supportive and cooperative with friends

Figure 10.4 A 10-Year-Old’s Explanation of Friendship

Gender Segregation Cultural influence Age of appearance Playmate preference Playmate style by gender Appears in every culture Visible as early as 3 or 4 Preference for same-sex playmates increases across middle childhood. Rough and tumble play occurs in boys and is avoided by girls Boys establish stable peer groups with dominance hierarchies Girls develop social skills based on self-disclosure

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Gender Segregation Boundary violations Play group composition by gender Play focus Cooperative play Boundary Violations Ritualized situations where boys and girls play together, such as chasing games Girls are more often play in pairs or small, fairly exclusive groups. Boys appear to focus on competition and dominance Girls include more agreement, compliance, and self-disclosure However cooperative play most common among both sexes

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Patterns of Aggression Physical aggression declines Verbal aggression continues to increase Anger increasingly disguised Aggression increasingly controlled Gender differences over time See Table 10.1 In all boy groups, physical aggression remains high School-age boys often show approval for aggression

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Patterns of Aggression Girls display more relational aggression Both boys and girls increase retaliatory aggression Can you think of examples to illustrate each kind of aggression? Relational aggression – ostracism, cruel gossip, facial expressions of disdain. Girls display more relational aggression Aggression aimed at damaging the other person’s self-esteem or peer relationships, ostracism, cruel gossip Directed more at other girls Both boys and girls increase retaliatory aggression Aggression to get back at someone who has hurt you Peers support retaliatory aggression while parents find it unacceptable

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Social Status Social status: Degree to which children are accepted by peers Popular children Attractive and physically larger Take turns in conversation Explain things Regulate strong emotions Perceptive and empathetic Popular children Attractive and physically larger Display positive, supporting, nonpunitive, and nonaggressive social behaviors toward most other children Take turns in conversation Explain things Regulate strong emotions Perceptive and empathetic

The Social World of the School-Aged Child Two Types of Rejected Children How are these types of rejected children alike? How are do they differ? Withdrawn/rejected children Aggressive/rejected children Withdrawn/rejected Realize they are disliked by peers Eventually give up trying for peer acceptance and become socially withdrawn Experience feelings of loneliness Aggressive/rejected Disruptive and uncooperative but think peers like them Unable to control expression of strong emotions Interrupt peers more and fail to take turns Boys may be rejected for aggression, or it may make them more popular

Very different from peers, shy, highly creative The Social World of the School-Aged Child Two Types of Rejected Children Neglected or rejected Very different from peers, shy, highly creative The invisible child Neglected or rejected Being very different from peers Shy children Highly creative children Neglected children may be lonely and depressed

Influences Beyond Family and Peers After-School Care Pros and Cons PROS/ADVANTAGES CONS/DISADVANTAGES To be input by students. 7.5 million children at home by themselves at least an hour each weekday Effects depend on behavioral history, age, gender, neighborhood, and parental monitoring More poorly adjusted peer relationships and school performance but behavior may precede self-care May be vulnerable to abuse by older children Self-care children in low-income neighborhoods experience more negative effects Parental monitoring critical for effective outcomes Children under age 9 or 10 should not care for themselves.

Influences Beyond Family and Peers Poverty Childhood poverty rate Rate is higher for younger children Characteristics of parents in poverty Figure 10.5 Characteristics of parents in poverty Talk to children less Provide fewer age-appropriate toys Spend less time providing educational opportunities Stricter discipline and emphasis on obedience Reduces options for parents – may not be able to afford prenatal care, fewer choices for affordable child care, living in smaller and less-than-adequate housing.

Figure 10.5 Poverty, Age and Time

Influences Beyond Family and Peers Poverty Children in poverty More often ill Lower average IQ scores Perform poorly in school Exhibit more behavior problems

Influences beyond Family and Peers Inner-City Poverty Protective Factors for Resiliency High IQ of child Competent adult parenting Effective schools Secure initial attachments Strong community helping network Stable parental employment Strong sense of ethnic identity

Influences beyond Family and Peers Inner-City Poverty Children of inner-city poverty may grow up Exposed to street gangs and street violence In over-crowded homes Subject to more abuse and drug use Witnessing or becoming victims of more violent crimes Subject to PTSD These children more often show symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder—sleep disturbances, angry outbursts High rates of school failure

? ? Questions To Ponder What are three factors that schools can focus on to help a student develop their sense of industry? Since we know poverty is a major factor in poor developmental outcomes for education, what can we do to encourage poor students to be successful?

True or False? There is a causal link between viewing violent television and aggressive behavior in children. False. See Figure 10.6 Causal link between violent television and aggressive behavior Significant short-term aggression in children who watched aggressive programs Those who watch more television more aggressive long term Leads to emotional desensitization Prosocial behavior enhanced by quality programs that teach children moral and social values Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood Sesame Street

Television Prosocial behavior Enhanced by quality programs that teach children moral and social values Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood Sesame Street See Figure 10.6 (page 285) 8-year-old boys who watched a lot of violent television were already more aggressive with peers.

Computers and the Internet Economic differences Uses Gender differences Wealthier children more often have and use computers at home Use for school work, games, email, chat rooms Boys become more verbal communicators on mixed-sex computer messaging

Video Games Influences on child behavior Violent content and game preferences

Influences Beyond Family and Peers Policy Question Test-Based Reform National Assessment of Educational Progress NAEP: “The Nation’s Report Card” Assessment of educational improvement “Teaching to the test” Student efforts Assessment of educational improvement BUT—teachers end up “teaching to the test” Textbooks become geared to the tests However students may try harder and there are signs of improvement too

Figure 10.6 NAEP Average Scores Over Time