Chapter 8 Human Development

Theories of Development Developmental Psychology the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span covers physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains

Issues in Developmental Psychology Nature – nurture debate Are you who you are because of genes (nature) or environment (nurture)? How do we study it? Monozygotic Twins Dizygotic Twins Adoption Studies

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: The essence of cognitive development is the refinement of schemes. Schemes plans of action to be used in similar circumstances 8.1 How does Piaget's theory explain cognitive development?

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Stages encompass the entire life span Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to occur. 8.4 How does Erikson's theory explain psychosocial development?

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Prenatal Development The development from conception to birth

Period of the zygote Period of the embryo Period of the fetus Zygote attaches to the uterine lining Ends 1 to 2 weeks after conception Period of the embryo Major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop (organogenesis) Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks after conception Period of the fetus Rapid growth and development of body structures, organs, and systems 9 weeks after conception until birth

Table 8.1 Stages of Prenatal Development

Prenatal Development and Infancy: Negative Influences on Prenatal Development Critical Period prenatal period when certain body structures develop Teratogens Any substance that can cross the placental barrier and harm the developing organism . 8.5 What happens in each stage of prenatal development?

Impact of teratogens Smoking and Nicotine Smaller birthweight Greater risk of SIDS Greater risk of ADHD Greater risk of Asthma Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Mother drinks during pregnancy. Baby is born with mental retardation, small head, facial, organ, and behavioral abnormalities Fetal Alcohol Effects

The photograph at left shows the brain of an infant girl who died at 6 weeks. The mother was categorized as a chronic alcoholic. The child’s head circumference was 27 centimeters at birth and did not grow at all during her 6 weeks of life (normal head circumference is approximately 35 centimeters - about 13 and 3/4 inches).

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Male infant born at term and died at 10 weeks due to a sudden cardiac arrest (see picture at right). The mother's alcohol drinking included   up to a gallon of wine at a time several times a week. The child had hydrocephalus (excess water in the brain) and typical facial features of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The cerebellum (which controls coordination and movement) was "extremely small and poorly shaped (see picture at right)." The brainstem (responsible for processes such as breathing and body temperature) was also grossly malformed.

Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing. Such children may also have cardiovascular and limb defects.

Infancy Critical Periods “Windows of Opportunity”

Prenatal Development and Infancy: Temperament behavioral style; characteristic way of responding to the environment influenced by heredity; somewhat predictive of personality later in life 8.7 How does temperament affect infants' behavior?

Attachment Attachment is the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver

Attachment Freud Baby attaches to mother because mom provides oral stimulation Attachment is due to feeding only.

Erikson Trust vs. mistrust Birth to 1 year

Harry Harlow Harry Harlow found that contact comfort forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys

Mary Ainsworth Separation anxiety Stranger anxiety The Strange Situation Human infants exhibit separation anxiety and stranger anxiety once attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age Separation anxiety fear and distress shown when parent leaves Stranger anxiety fear of strangers

Insecure Avoidant attachment Secure attachment Use mother as a secure base for exploring Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet caregivers when they return More cooperative and content than other infants Display better social skills as preschool children Insecure Avoidant attachment Not responsive to mother, not troubled when she leaves May actively avoid contact with mother after separation

Insecure Resistant attachment Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to branch out and explore After separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted Insecure Disorganized/disoriented attachment Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory and disoriented behavior when reunited

Early and Middle Childhood Mastery of language, both spoken and written, is just one of several important developmental processes that happen in early and middle childhood.

Language Development Babbling One-word stage Two-word stage Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which begins between 4 and 6 months One-word stage First words spoken at about 1 year First words usually represent objects that move or that infants can act on Two-word stage Usually begins about 18-20 months

Socialization Parenting Styles Baumrind 2 factors: Discipline and control Love and affection Low High

Socialization Parenting Styles Authoritarian parents Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, punish transgressions Authoritative parents Set high but realistic standards, reason with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence Permissive parents Make few rules or demands, allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior

Socialization Parenting Styles - Outcomes Children with authoritarian parents: withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy Children with authoritative parents: happier; have higher self-esteem; more self-reliant, socially competent; more responsible than their peers Children with permissive parents: most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlled

Adolescence Begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of independent adulthood

Puberty and Sexual Behavior A period of rapid physical growth and change that culminates in sexual maturity Puberty and self-concept Early maturation in boys is associated with higher self-esteem But may also be associated with greater aggression and hostility Early maturation in girls is associated with higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, and earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use

Social Relationships Most adolescents have good relationships with their parents Parenting style affects adolescent behavior Permissive parenting = higher incidence of drug and alcohol use + lower motivation for academic success Authoritative parenting = more psychological distress + lower self-confidence in adolescents Peer groups provide adolescents with standards of comparison and a vehicle for developing social skills

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development cont… Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence Intimacy vs. isolation Young adulthood

David Elkind Adolescent Egocentrism Self-centered thinking Personal fable Imaginary audience