2. The Study of Human Development
Developmental psychology
Examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional change

3. The Study of Human Development
THREE DEBATES
Stages or continuity
Sensitive and critical periods
Hereditary and environmental influences
Nature and nurture
Stability and change

4. CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
CNRI / Science Source
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells (sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs. These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as a complete, unique person. The primary component of each chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA. Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes, each determining specific traits.

5. Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological parents?
Genes are found in chromosomes.
Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
XX = female; XY = male

6. Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
Is single cell formed by union of sperm cell and egg
Travels down fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Multiples
Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception.
Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different sperm.

7. Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
Germinal Period (Conception to end of 2nd week)
Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo Period (3rd to 8th week)
Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems begin
Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems develop by end of period
Fetal Period (2nd month to birth)
Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs, systems, and structures fully developed at birth
Brain weight one-quarter of adult size
Omikron/Science Source
Anatomical Travelogue/Science Source
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Neil Bromhall / Science Source

8. Prenatal Development and Periods.
Prenatal Development and Periods
of Critical Growth

9. Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
Teratogens
Embryo not protected from all environmental dangers.
Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.
Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure.

11. The photograph at left shows the brain of an infant girl who died at 6 weeks. The mother was categorized as a chronic alcoholic. The child’s head circumference was 27 centimeters at birth and did not grow at all during her 6 weeks of life (normal head circumference is approximately 35 centimeters - about 13 and 3/4 inches).

12. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Male infant born at term and died at 10 weeks due to a sudden cardiac arrest (see picture at right). The mother's alcohol drinking included   up to a gallon of wine at a time several times a week. The child had hydrocephalus (excess water in the brain) and typical facial features of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The cerebellum (which controls coordination and movement) was "extremely small and poorly shaped (see picture at right)." The brainstem (responsible for processes such as breathing and body temperature) was also grossly malformed.

13. Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing
Child with FAS, illustrating many features in the drawing. Such children may also have cardiovascular and limb defects.

14. Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development
Can you identify the potential effects of each of these teratogens?
Alcohol
Caffeine
Cocaine
Lead
Lithium
LSD
Mercury
Nicotine
Radiation exposure
See Table 8.1, pg. 343

15. Infancy and Child Development
Synaptic pruning
Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
Unused synaptic connections eliminated
Decrease in neural connection by 40 to 50 percent by puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrate how environment influences animal brain development.
Rats with enriched environment experienced greater increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.

17. Infancy and Child Development
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema
Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Assimilation
Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information

18. Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia
Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia.com; Child playing vet with Teddy bear, ˝ Gina Sanders/Fotolia.com; Object permanence test, Doug Goodman/Science Source; Blocks silo, Thinkstock; Teenage girl writing on chalkboard, Creatas/Thinkstock; Young Asian boy pouring cooking oil into cake batter, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Hands open, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Piaget Conservation-Girl with milk glasses, Bianca Moscatelli/Worth Publishers

19. Assessing Child’s Stage of Cognitive Development
Child playing peekaboo, ˝ Peter Polak/Fotolia.com; Child playing vet with Teddy bear, ˝ Gina Sanders/Fotolia.com; Object permanence test, Doug Goodman/Science Source; Blocks silo, Thinkstock; Teenage girl writing on chalkboard, Creatas/Thinkstock; Young Asian boy pouring cooking oil into cake batter, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Hands open, iStockphoto/Thinkstock; Piaget Conservation-Girl with milk glasses, Bianca Moscatelli/Worth Publishers

21. Infancy and Child Development
ATTACHMENT
Attachment
Degree to which infant feels emotional connection with primary caregivers

22. Attachment
Freud
Baby attaches to mother because mom provides oral stimulation
Attachment is due to feeding only.

23. Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Erikson
Proposed human development marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age
Suggested each stage marked by developmental task or emotional crisis to be resolved
Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage

24. Infancy and Child Development
ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES Trust versus mistrust Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus Isolation Check Table 8.2 for a discussion of each stage and its positive and negative resolutions.

25. Erikson
Trust vs. mistrust
Birth to 1 year

26. Harry Harlow
Harry and Margaret Harlow found that contact comfort forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys

27. Mary Ainsworth The Strange Situation
Human infants exhibit separation anxiety and stranger anxiety once attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age
Separation anxiety
fear and distress shown when parent leaves
Stranger anxiety
fear of strangers

28. Insecure Avoidant attachment
Secure attachment
Use mother as a secure base for exploring
Distressed by separation from caregivers, greet caregivers when they return
More cooperative and content than other infants
Display better social skills as preschool children
Insecure Avoidant attachment
Not responsive to mother, not troubled when she leaves
May actively avoid contact with mother after separation

29. Insecure Ambivalent attachment
Seek close contact with mother, and tend not to branch out and explore
After separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted

30. Adolescence
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Adolescence Puberty Menarche Spermarche

31. Adolescence PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Timing and effects of maturation
Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower self- confidence
Early maturing boys: Generally a more positive experience; however: aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common

32. Adolescence PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Adolescent egocentrism
Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
Influences increased risky behaviors
Personal Fable
Imaginary Audience

33. Adolescence Adolescent brain
© Michael Ainsworth/Dallas Morning News/Corbis
Adolescent brain
Significant limbic system development compared to prefrontal cortex can lead to increase in risk-taking behavior.
Increased myelination of axons in prefrontal cortex which is not yet fully developed
Adolescent may not foresee the possible consequences of reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence decision about teenagers and the death penalty?
Teen inmates stand in line at a Texas prison facility. As of 2005, defendants being tried for crimes committed before age 18 are no longer candidates for the death penalty.

34. Adolescence SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion
Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles
Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages
Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals
Negative resolution = Role confusion

35. SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive, but most involve some degree of conflict. Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a deeper meaning. The adolescent is breaking away from his parents, establishing himself as an autonomous person.
SW Productions/Getty Images
Parents and Friends

36. Parenting Styles Baumrind 2 factors: Discipline and control
Love and affection
Low High

37. Socialization Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents
Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, punish transgressions
Authoritative parents
Set high but realistic standards, reason with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence
Permissive parents
Make few rules or demands, allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior

38. Socialization Parenting Styles - Outcomes
Children with authoritarian parents: withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy
Children with authoritative parents: happier; have higher self-esteem; more self-reliant, socially competent; more responsible than their peers
Children with permissive parents: most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlled