1. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Overview Developmental Psychology –Longitudinal and cross sectional research Theories of Development –Cognitive  Piaget, Vygotsky –Moral  Kohlberg –Psychosocial  Erikson

2. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Overview Prenatal Development Infancy –Attachment Early and Middle Childhood –Parenting Styles –Gender Role Development Sexual Orientation (Chapter 9)

3. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Theories of Development Developmental Psychology –the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout life –physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

4. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Developmental Research Longitudinal research –one group –measured at different ages –age-related changes –time consuming, expensive, possible bias due to dropout Cross-sectional research –compare groups of different ages –group averages –cohort effect

5. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development four stages fixed sequence schemes change throughout stages schemes –plans of action to be used in similar circumstances LO 8.1

6. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Assimilation –incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information into existing schemes Accommodation –modify existing schemes and create new ones to incorporate new experiences and information LO 8.1

7. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd

8. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd

9. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage –birth to 2 years –senses –physical actions/experiences –object permanence  objects continue to exist when they are out of sight  blanket and ball study LO 8.1

10. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage –ages 2–7 –symbolic function.  understanding that one thing can stand for another (language, pretend play) –egocentrism.  belief that everyone sees what they see and thinks what they think  three mountains task –appearance of objects LO 8.1

11. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete Operational Stage –7–12 years –conservation  quantity stays the same despite rearrangement or change in appearance –reversibility  any change in shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally –apply rules to physical objects-not hypothetical LO 8.1

12. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Figure 8.1 Piaget’s Conservation Tasks Piaget’s research involved several kinds of conservation tasks. He classified children’s thinking as concrete operational with respect to a particular task if they could correctly solve the problem and provide a concrete operational reason for their answer. For example, if a child said, “The two circles of marbles are the same because you didn’t add any or take any away when you moved them,” the response was judged to be concrete operational. Conversely, if a child said, “The two circles are the same, but I don’t know why,” the response was not classified as concrete operational. Source: Bee & Boyd, The Developing Child, 11e.

13. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operational Stage –11-12 years and beyond –hypothetico-deductive thinking  ability to apply logical thought to abstract and hypothetical situations  think systematically –taller than task –balance beam and weights task –weights and string LO 8.1

14. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

15. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development cross cultural research –universality for types of reasoning and sequence of stages –differences in rates in various domains –closely tied to formal education- especially formal operational LO 8.1

16. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development stage theory of moral development presented moral dilemmas and analyzed the moral reasoning in choices three levels, two stages at each level –fixed order –related to stages of cognitive development LO 8.3

17. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Preconventional (Level one) –physical consequences  Stage 1: avoid punishment  Stage 2: rewarded, benefits

18. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Conventional (Level two) –internalized standards of others, being a good person  Stage 3: act to please and help others in social group (friends, family, church) (good/nice)  Stage 4: social approval, maintain larger social order, laws

19. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Postconventional (Level three) –weigh moral alternatives-laws may conflict with basic human rights  Stage 5: respect for individual rights, not only order  Stage 6: universal ethical principles- independent of legal restrictions

20. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

21. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Figure 8.2 Longitudinal Study of Moral Development These findings are from Colby and Kohlberg’s long-term longitudinal study of a group of boys who were asked about Kohlberg’s moral dilemmas every few years from age 10 through early adulthood. Note that postconventional, or principled, reasoning was quite uncommon, even in adulthood. Source: Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48, pp. 1–124.

22. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Stages –encompass the entire life span –Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to occur. LO 8.4

23. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Trust vs. Mistrust –birth-1 year –regular care, affection

24. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt –1-3 years –independence, personal control

25. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Initiative vs. Guilt –3-6 years –initiative in play

26. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Industry vs. Inferiority –6 years-puberty –accomplishment of tasks, interests

27. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Identity vs. Role Confusion –Adolescence –who am I? what can I be?

28. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Intimacy vs. Isolation –Young adulthood –friendships, relationships

29. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Generativity vs. Stagnation –Middle adulthood –contributing to society

30. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Ego Integrity vs. Despair –Late adulthood –successful life?

31. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Most research has focused on trust in infants, identity formation in adolescents, and generativity in middle-aged adults. LO 8.4

32. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

33. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Prenatal Development prenatal –from conception to birth zygote –cells that result from the union of a sperm and ovum

34. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Table 8.1 Stages of Prenatal Development

35. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Negative Influences on Prenatal Development developing embryo and fetus are vulnerable  prenatal care, maternal health Teratogens –harmful agents in the prenatal environment –impact depends on intensity and timing Critical Period –prenatal period when certain body structures develop LO 8.5

36. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Negative Influences on Prenatal Development Fetal Alcohol Syndrome –alcohol crosses the placental barrier –alcohol level in fetus almost match levels in mother’s blood –mental retardation, small head, facial abnormalities, and behavioral difficulties. LO 8.5

37. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Infancy: Attachment Attachment –strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver LO 8.8

38. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Infancy: Attachment Harry Harlow attachment studies –Contact comfort (not food) forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys. studies show attachment process similar in humans LO 8.8

39. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Once attachment is formed, infants will show: –Separation anxiety  fear and distress when parent leaves  8-24 months of age, peaks 12-24 months of age LO 8.8

40. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Once attachment is formed, infants will show: –Stranger anxiety  fear of strangers  6-12 months of age, declines 12-24 months LO 8.8

41. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Strange situation experiment by Ainsworth infants 9-18 months measured: –amount of exploration by infant –reaction to departure of caregiver –anxiety when alone with stranger –behavior when reunited with caregiver

42. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment studies show 4 patterns of attachment Secure Attachment –about 65% of infants –use caregiver as a secure base for exploring –distressed by separation from caregiver, greet caregiver when they return –display better social skills as preschool children LO 8.8

43. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Avoidant Attachment –about 20% of infants –not responsive to mother or troubled when she leaves –may actively avoid contact with mother after separation LO 8.8

44. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Resistant Attachment –10–15% of infants –seek close contact with caregiver –tend not to branch out and explore –after separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted LO 8.8

45. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Attachment Disorganized/disoriented Attachment –5–10% of infants –least secure attachment –protest separation –exhibit contradictory and disoriented behavior when reunited-may look away or approach with little expression LO 8.8

46. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Early and Middle Childhood Socialization: Parenting Styles Socialization-learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values LO 8.10

47. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Parenting Styles Authoritarian Parents –arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, misbehavior punished –value obedience –Parents: uncommunicative, unresponsive –Children: withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy, low intellectual performance, lack of social skills

48. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Parenting Styles Authoritative Parents –high but realistic standards –encourage open communication and independence –Parents: warm, supportive, responsive –Children: mature, higher self-esteem, socially competent, self-reliant, socially competent, responsible, higher academic performance LO 8.10

49. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Parenting Styles Permissive Parents –few rules or demands –children make their own decisions and control their own behavior –Parents: warm/supportive or uninterested –Children: immature, impulsive, and dependent, least self-reliant and self- controlled of three subtypes LO 8.10

50. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Parenting Styles Parenting style –authoritative parenting style is most effective –in adolescence permissive style is least effective

51. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Gender Role Development Sex –biological, physiological –XX or XY Gender –psychological, social –gender roles-cultural expectations –gender identity-integration of gender roles into sense of self; psychological experience of feeling male or female

52. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Gender Role Development Social Learning Theory –environment –modeling and reinforcement for gender behavior –does not explain play behavior consistent with gender role by age 2 LO 8.11

53. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Gender Role Development Cognitive Developmental Theory –development in stages  gender identity (2-3 years old), gender stability (4-5 years old), and gender constancy (6-7 years old) LO 8.11

54. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Gender Role Development Gender-Schema Theory –desire to maintain self-esteem –match behavior and schema-directs child toward culturally defined gender roles LO 8.11

55. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Sexual Orientation (Chapter 9, page 312-313) Sexual orientation –direction of an individual’s sexual preference; heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual LO 9.11

56. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Sexual Orientation Genetic predisposition increases the likelihood of homosexual orientation in both sexes. –50-60% of identical twins of gay men are also gay. –22% of fraternal twins of gay men are also gay –11% of brothers LO 9.11

57. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Sexual Orientation Prenatal hormones play a role. Brain structure (hypothalamus) may also differ. Family life during childhood has NOT been identified as a predictor of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is the result of a complex interplay of nature and nurture. LO 9.11

58. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Chapter 9, page 302) Abraham Maslow –Human needs are hierarchical. –Humans are motivated by their lowest unmet need. –When lower needs are met, the ultimate goal is self-actualization. LO 9.4

59. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs According to humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow, “higher” motives, such as the need for love, go unheeded when “lower” motives, such as the need for safety, are not met.

60. Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd