Sexual Orientation and the Social Problem of Homophobia Social Problems Sexual Orientation and the Social Problem of Homophobia

What is Homosexuality? “an attraction, physical and emotional, to people of the same sex.” (Tepperman et al.) “a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with individuals of the “same” sex (homosexuality), the “opposite” sex (heterosexuality), or both (bisexuality)” (Kendal et al.) Can be behaviour or identity Homosexual and gay: males who prefer “same” sex Lesbian: females who prefer “same” sex Straight: heterosexuals who prefer “opposite” sex

Criteria for Classifying Individuals as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual Sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender Sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender Self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or bisexual

Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Gender identity refers to one’s sense of maleness or femaleness in society Formed by age three Important aspect of one’s self concept Emerges as a significant aspect of identity during adolescence Sexual identity refers to a sense of one’s attractiveness to others comfort with one’s body and sexual attitudes and feelings Sexual orientation - level of attraction to the same, opposite, or both sexes Homosexual orientation Heterosexual orientation Bisexual orientation

In the recent past… A sin Homosexuality has often been regarded as: A sin A function of some form of physical and mental pathology

Recent Past (cont.) In Aug. 6, 1885, the British Parliament voted to make homosexual acts a criminal offense. Many other Western countries soon followed suit In 1930s Germany, Hitler launched campaign against not just Jews but also other groups… Thousands of homosexuals sent to concentration camps. Gay men identified with pink triangles and lesbians with black triangles.

More Recently… Dr. Alfred Kinsey’ s research (1953) instrumental in the normalization of homosexual behavior Sexual feelings and behaviors towards the same sex were not abnormal Researchers concluded that homosexuals cannot be distinguished from non-homosexuals in psychological terms Thomas Szasz – Psychiatrists replaced the church in labeling homosexuality an illness

The Numbers: Dr. Alfred Kinsey (1953) showed that sexuality a continuum: Homosexuality--------------heterosexuality Kinsey estimated the homosexual population at 10 percent of the population Current studies indicate it is around 1 to 4% of the population 2003 Canadian Community Health Survey found only 1% but according to gay community in Canada more likely 5 – 10% (Alphonso, Globe and Mail, June 16, 2004, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20040616/GAY16/TPNational/Canada)

Our Changing Attitudes… (CBC Digital Archives) Go to the CBC Digital Archives at http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/rights_freedoms/topics/599/ to see the changes in Canadian attitudes and understanding by watching the 1959 clip “A Psychiatric Problem” and the 1978 clip “The Rocky Road to Gay Rights” More recently…

Environics Research Group 2001 Poll of Canadian Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Date “Approval” “Disapproval” No opinion 1996 22% 48% 27% 1999 34 34 29 2001 44 37 16

2004 Gallup Poll on Same Sex Marriage (http://www. gallup

The Gay Lifestyle: Interpersonal Relationships and Domestic Arrangements Studies point to similarities and differences between homosexual and heterosexual relationships Interestingly, domestic arrangements often mirror those of heterosexual couples Influence of patriarchal culture? Long-lived partnerships between gay men are not uncommon but they are not typical Lesbians tend to attach a high priority to domestic partnerships

The Homosexual Subculture Homosexual subculture consists of the institutions within the gay community Gay magazines and periodicals Bars, Movie theaters Parks Businesses Social clubs and organizations A major function of the subculture is that it provides a way for its members to understand and accept their orientation Homosexual organizations aid in the pursuit of political rights

Who “Becomes” a Homosexual? No direct link between genetic traits and homosexuality but growing scientific literature provides evidence for biological basis Large portion of homosexuals attribute their orientation to early childhood or support a biological explanation Social scientists largely attribute homosexuality to one’s social environment Believe sexual behavior is learned

Labelling Theory Explanation: Homosexuality as a process of labeling that involves four stages 1. Sensitization 2. Dissociation and significance 3. Coming out 4. Commitment

Lack of Scientific and Public Consensus Debate: Does homosexuality have genetic or social origins? Sexualities are shaped differently across time and location Real issue is about social justice and not about the origins of homosexuality

Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation Exists Because of: Homophobia: the irrational and excessive fear of intolerance of homosexuals and homosexuality Biphobia: fear and intolerance of bisexuals and bisexual lifestyles Transphobia: fear of transsexual and transgendered people Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is the only normal, natural, and moral mode of relating, and hence is superior to homosexuality or bisexuality. In our culture, heterosexuality is the norm and many people are at least somewhat “heterosexist.”

The Social Problem of Homophobia Variance from the societal norm of heterosexuality is not a social problem The societal response, whether it is in the form of prejudice, discrimination (institutional or individual) or homophobia is the social problem.

Sources of Homophobia Homophobia tends to be associated with Male gender identity Distorted notions of masculinity Study by Adams (U. of Georgia) showed that individuals who score in the homophobic range on a "Homophobia Scale" demonstrate significant sexual arousal to male homosexual erotic stimuli.

Generally, research shows that homophobic individuals…. 1. are less likely to have had personal contact with lesbians or gays; 2. are less likely to report having engaged in homosexual behaviors, or to identify themselves as lesbian or gay; 3. are more likely to perceive their peers as manifesting negative attitudes, especially if the respondents are males; 4. are more likely to have resided in areas where negative attitudes are the norm (e.g., the midwestern and southern United States, the Canadian prairies, and in rural areas or small towns), especially during adolescence; 5. are likely to be older and less well educated;

Research shows… (cont.) 6. are more likely to be religious, to attend church frequently, and to subscribe to a conservative religious ideology; 7. are more likely to express traditional, restrictive attitudes about sex roles; 8. are less permissive sexually or manifest more guilt or negativity about sexuality, although some researchers have not observed this pattern and others have reported a substantially reduced correlation with the effects of sex-role attitudes partialled out; 9. are more likely to manifest high levels of authoritarianism and related personality characteristics. (source:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/roots/overview.html)

U.S. Studies on Effects of Homophobia show: Students who describe themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgendered are five times more likely to miss school because of feeling unsafe and 28% are forced to drop out. The vast majority of victims of anti-lesbian/gay violence - possibly more than 80% - never report the incident, often due to fear of being "outed." 85% of teachers oppose integrating lesbian, gay and bisexual themes in their curricula. Due to sexual orientation discrimination, lesbians earn up to 14% less than their heterosexual female peers with similar jobs, education, age and residence, according to a 1995 study by the University of Maryland.

U.S. Studies (cont.) 42% of homeless youth identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual. 75% of people committing hate crimes are under age 30 - one in three are under 18 - and some of the most pervasive anti-gay violence occurs in schools. Lesbian, gay and bisexual youth are at a four times higher risk for suicide than their straight peers. A 1994 survey of 191 employers revealed that 18% would fire, 27% would refuse to hire and 26% would refuse to promote a person they perceived to be lesbian, gay or bisexual. Source: http://www.now.org/issues/lgbi/stats.html

Canadian Studies: Lack of research in Canada, especially on homosexual youth. According to Egale Canada: “Teens are among those most vulnerable to homophobic bullying” but also notes that: “Currently, there are no Canadian statistics except for a small scale study (77 youth) done in 1999 in B.C. by the McCreary Centre Society.” (www.egale.ca)

Canadian (cont. ) (table below from http://www. lgbthealth

Health Effects due to Homophobia: Report to Gay and Lesbian Health Services Sakatoon SK Other Canadian research shows that an “increased incidence of health and social problems found in the GLB population are related to the stigma and shame associated with living in a homophobic society” (Ryan, Brotman & Rowe, 2000) Evidence of higher rates of depression Higher unemployment More likely to be victims of physical violence and anti-homosexual homicide (source: The Human Impact of Homophobia, 2003 by Christopher Banks http://www.lgbthealth.net/downloads/research/Human_Impact_of_Homophobia.pdf)

The Status of Homophobic Discrimination in Canada and the U.S.: Typically, three most common types of discrimination and oppression are: Ideological Legal Occupational

Ideological Discrimination Enacted through homophobia When people believe gays are immoral: They belittle their lifestyle Tell jokes Deny housing, jobs, memberships Engage in hostile or violent acts Most Judeo-Christian religions and Islam generally find homosexuality to be a sin although a few denominations tend to be more accepting of homosexuality (i.e. the United Church allowed ordination of gays in 1988)

Ideological (cont.) Buddhism only major religion that does not regard homosexuality as a sin Medicine and psychiatry considered homosexuality an illness in the past i.e. in U.S., it was not until 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association stopped classifying it as such. Stereotypical beliefs equate sexual orientation and other practices eg. Pedophilia is nearly always committed by heterosexual men

Legal Discrimination: Legal and Civil Status in Canada In Canada, the government of the late P.M. Trudeau decriminalized homosexuality in 1969 In 2005, the House of Commons voted 158 to 133 to adopt controversial legislation to make Canada only the third country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage (>10 000 marriage licences by June 2006) On Monday (May 26, 2008) the Huron Diocese of the Anglican Church in London, ON voted “in favour (~72% ministers and laypersons) of conditionally allowing ministers to bless married, same-sex couples” (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080526.wanglicangay0526/BNStory/National/)

Canada (cont.) Same-sex couples can be parents in Canada In 2007, same-sex couples married outside of Canada allowed to immigrate to Canada as married couples (http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=b647b9da-a58d-4d56-bdd1-368ed2e8aace&k=84098) Time line in Canada: http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/samesexrights/timeline_canada.html

In the U.S…. But…in the U.S., sodomy still a crime in some states and same sex marriage is illegal (through a constitutional amendment endorsed by G. W. Bush in 2003). Most states also have laws banning same sex marriage with exception of Massachusetts and California (will vote Nov. 2008) For more, see http://marriage.about.com/cs/marriagelicenses/a/samesexcomp.htm

Around the World… World Timeline: http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/samesexrights/timeline_world.html Global climate, especially in Western World, is changing Denmark first country to legally recognize same-sex marriage in 1989 Follwoed by Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, France and Iceland (2001) Israel, South Africa, Spain, and New Zealand have now legalized same-sex marriage

Occupational Oppression In 1995 the Canadian Human Rights Act was amended to prohibit discrimination on basis of sexual orientation It is now illegal in Canada to refuse employment on basis of sexual orientation Also, same sex benefits are now law But still many issues exist… For an interesting explanation of some of the problems, read the C.A.W. brochure (see below)

Occupational (cont.) “Gays, lesbians, bisexuals and trans people aren't asking for special rights. We are asking for an end to discrimination. It’s only in the last five years that employers in Canada can no longer legally pay lesbian and gay employees less than their heterosexual counterparts (prior to this, unless it was specifically negotiated for same-sex couples, only heterosexual employees had benefit and pension coverage for their partners). Trans people certainly aren’t asking for anything ‘special’ either – a safe place to work, a safe washroom / changeroom (just like everyone else has), the right to be called by their name, the right to accommodation (that we all have), and the right to be referred to by their chosen gender.” (from 2006 C.A.W. booklet at http://www.caw.ca/whatwedo/pride/pdf/glbt_booklet.pdf)

Other Forms of Discrimination Housing can be a problem, so there is a tendency to inhabit specific geographic spaces in major cities Medical care: many professionals have been prejudiced, uninformed, or provided inadequate information Hate crimes and hate literature motivated by victim’s sexual orientation See “In Defense of Homophobia” at: http://wuphys.wustl.edu/~katz/

Overall… Homophobia (including biphobia, transphobia, and heterosexism) seems to be more pronounced in the U.S. than in Canada The result of legislation (Charter of Rights, recognition of the legality of gay marriage, etc. seem to have had a positive effect on Canadian attitudes. Recent Canadian research does show an increase in tolerance toward homosexuals Tolerance also a function of political movements by gays and on behalf of gays

What are Canadian Attitudes?

Attitudes (cont.)

Sociological Perspectives Functionalist Focus is on the relationship between social structure and sexual orientation, e.g., how norms and laws preserve social structures like the family, and how sexual orientation is said to threaten it Societies punish homosexual conduct because it violates norms and undermines stability But marriage is also understood as the decision of two people to live together in a partnership

Perspectives (cont.) Conflict Focus is on tensions in society and differences in interests and power among opposing groups People with power have own attitudes enforced Norms pertaining to compulsory hetero-sexuality reflect beliefs of dominant group But adverse decisions by courts led to increased political activism by gay and lesbian rights groups

Perspectives (cont.) Conflict (cont.) Openly gay and lesbian people are found in all occupations and publicly acknowledge their orientation But some wealthy and powerful people are gay and lesbian and do little to reduce discrimination

Perspectives (cont.) Interactionist Views sexual behaviour as learned behaviour Examines process by which individuals come to identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or straight Acquiring status of heterosexual is easier because it is the established norm Sexual orientation is a master status, the most significant status a person possesses, for many homosexuals. It is especially significant when linked to other subordinate group statuses

Perspectives (cont.) Interactionist (cont.) Stages in accepting a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity: Identity Confusion—feeling different from others Seeking out others who are openly lesbian or gay and experimenting Integrating self concept and accepting a label by pursuing a way of life that conforms to the label

Perspectives (cont.) Feminist Focus, originally, was on group (men) in power imposing its agenda Norms and values about heterosexuality work to promote interests of men More recently a shift has occurred from critiques of patriarchy to a more inclusive politics that values all diversity and encourages acceptance of all people

Perspectives (cont.) Queer Theory Rejects notions of “normal” or “natural” in favour of social construction so any and every form of sexuality is acceptable The term “Queer” is reclaimed as a means of self-identification (“ form of tertiary deviance”)

Reducing Inequalities… Functionalist Perspective: With the legalization of marriage some are saying that homosexuality can be dysfunctional for society Conflict Perspective: Homophobia is like racism and sexism Repeal laws based on discrimination and pass laws that ban discrimination People must continue activism to gain equal rights Interactionist Perspective: Society should be more tolerant. Legal and social barriers that prevent full participation in society should be removed

Reducing Inequalities Based on Sexual Orientation: Feminist Perspective: Promote sexual pluralism all people need to support each other to combat oppression Everyone can then fight against the variety of oppressions Queer Theory: Refuse to define self or others

Interesting websites… History of Legislation: http://www.canada.com/national/story.html?id=41a2cfbb-5124-4527-8627-3af8aa1919de Link to Resources: http://www.pflagcanada.ca/en/links-e.asp?audience=gay PBS Report: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/