Unit 7: Memory and Cognition :

Episodic Memory: When we remember a specific event that occurred in our lives, we call it an episodic memory This might be something trivial, like what color shirt you wore yesterday. It might be something important, like when your husband proposed to you

Semantic Memory: These are general things that you know that do not involve a specific event from your life Your semantic memory will be based on your life experiences

Procedural Memory: When we remember how to do things, we call that procedural memory Most of the time we do this by repeated practice of a routine Muscle memory is permanent

Explicit Memory Every day, we are called upon to remember information that is vital for us to pass classes and be successful in school We must intentionally try to remember this information We call this explicit memory

Implicit Memory Every day, we are also learning new information and having new experiences Most of these will be forgotten, but some may make their way into our memory When we remember things, even when we are not trying to, we call this implicit memory

Flash-Bulb/Snap Shot Memory A type of episodic memory that is remembered because of the intensity of the situation These are very rare, but can be brought on when we are overwhelmed by a deep sense of emotion While many of these memories may be brought on by a sense of shock, that does not always mean they will be negative

Short-Term Memory This part of our memory is designed to store limited amounts of memory for a limited amount of time (between seconds) The reason this information is “flushed” quickly is that most of it is irrelevant Example: I go to a website that lists other websites. Once I find the website I am looking for and go to that website, I forget the previous website

Working Memory A part of our short-term memory is dedicated to our working memory This is information that is stored within our short term memory that we need to keep long enough to do a task If I cram for 5 minutes before my quiz, I am trying to manipulate my working memory, but there is little chance that it will help me in the long-term.

Long-Term Memory When we remember something for a longer period of time (maybe a lifetime) we call that our long-term memory Sometimes, like in the case of snapshot memory, this can be instantaneous. Other times, it is a conscious (Explicit) process to remember something Anything can be committed to our long-term memory if we practice it enough My grandmother, for example knew dozens of recipes from memorization and could “eyeball” the ingredients

Encoding/Storage Encoding is the process by which we acquire information and enter it into our memory banks Storage is the process by which we maintain information in our memory over time EX: If I see the most gorgeous man ever, I will commit “Hunkosaurus Rex” into memory through encoding. If I remember him years from now, then he has been stored.” GRRRRR!!!!

Types of Encoding Acoustic Encoding: When we encode information as a sequence of sounds Visual Encoding: When we encode information as a sequence of visuals Semantic Encoding: When we encode experiences by their general meaning

Encoding Specificity Principle: In this principle, the ability of a cue to aid retrieval depends on the degree to which it taps into information that was encoded at the time of the original learning EX: If I go to the Statue of Venus within the rose garden at the Huntington Library I will always remember proposing to my wife there many, many, many years before.

Retrieval/Primacy/Regency In retrieval, I recall information stored in my memory A Retrieval Cue is an stimuli that aids in the recognition or recall of information stored in our memory Primacy Effect is a characteristic of memory where we are able to recall the first 2 or 3 items in a list to help us remember the rest Regency Effect is a characteristic of memory where we are able to recall the last 2 or 3 items in a list to help us remember the rest

Levels of Processing Model In this model, how well we remember something depends on the degree to which incoming information is mentally processed. EX: Because I was intoxicated last Friday, I don’t remember punching my cousin, barfing in his kitchen, the passing out on the sidewalk in my Batman Costume.

Rehearsal Models Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over in order to keep it active in short-term memory. Elaborative Rehearsal: A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in Long Term Memory This image has nothing to do with this slide. Or does it??? Bwahahahaha!!!

Processing Models Transfer-Appropriate: A model of memory that suggests that a critical determinant of memory is how well the retrieval process matches the encoding process Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): Memory models in which new experiences change one’s overall knowledge base. Information-Processing: A Memory model in which information is seen as passing through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Brown-Peterson Procedure A method tested in 1958 and 1959 that determines how long unrehearsed information remains in short-term memory EX: What was the picture 2 slide ago???

Schemas and Memory A Schema is a mental representation of categories of objects, events, and people We will usually classify new memories in relation to other related memories Where might this go???

Interference and Memory Interference: The process through which either the storage or the retrieval of information is impaired by the presence of other information Retroactive Interference: A cause of forgetting in which new information placed in memory interferes with the ability to recall information already in memory. Proactive Interference: A cause of forgetting in which information already in memory interferes with the ability to remember new information

Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia: A loss of memory for any event that occurs after a brain injury Retrograde Amnesia: A loss of memory for events prior to a brain injury

What is Cognition? Cognition is the ability to think and process information in a logical fashion This is one of the things that makes humans different from other animals

Reaction Time The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an overt response to that stimulus This can be trained in some cases

Evoked Brain Potential A small, temporary change in EEG voltage that is evoked by some stimulus This allows us to see what and how our brain is reacting in a situation

Types of Concepts Concept: A category of objects, events, or ideas that have common properties Formal Concept: A concept that can be clearly defined by a set of rules or properties Natural Concept: A concept that has no fixed set of defining features, but has a set of characteristic features Prototype: A member of a natural concept that possesses all or most of its characteristic features

Types of Concepts Proposition: A mental representation of the relationships between concepts. Schema: A generalization about categories of objects, places, events, and people. Script: A mental representation of familiar sequences of activity. Mental Model: A cluster of propositions representing our understanding of objects and processes that guides our interaction with those things.

Images and Cognitive Maps An image is a mental representation of visual information A cognitive map is a mental representation of familiar parts of the environment EX: If I am in a place I have been before, I can recognize where I am without seeing the whole place

Reasoning Reasoning is the process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and reach conclusions about them Formal Reasoning is process of following a set of rigorous procedures for reaching valid conclusions Algorithms are used in reasoning when there is a systematic procedure, that when followed, cannot produce an incorrect outcome. (EX: math!!!)

Logic When we use logic, we are drawing valid conclusions based on the information presented to us A syllogism is an argument made up of 2 propositions, called premises, and conclusions based on those premises

Heuristics A heuristic is a shortcut used in reasoning Anchoring Heuristic: a mental shortcut that involves basing judgements on existing information Representative Heuristic: A mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs to a given class based on its similarities to other members of that class

Artificial Intelligence The field that studies how to program computers to imitate the products of human perceptions, understanding, and thought

Cognition and Language Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combing them that provides a vehicle for communication Without language, humans would not be able to do almost anything