Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004
1: An Introduction to Public Speaking 2: The Ethics of Public Speaking 3: Speaking Confidently 4: Responding to Speeches 5: Analyzing your Audience 6: Selecting your Topic
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 7: Researching Your Topic 8: Supporting Your Speech 9: Organizing the Body of Your Speech 10: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech 11: Outlining Your Speech 12: Wording Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 13: Delivering Your Speech 14: Using Presentational Aids 15: Speaking to Inform 16: The Strategy of Persuasion 17: The Structure of Persuasion 18: Speaking on Special Occasions 19: Speaking in and as a Group
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Public Speaking
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Public Speaking
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Studying Public Speaking Helps you succeed in school / at work.... Increases your knowledge.... Helps build your confidence.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 We Remember percent of what we read, 20 percent of what we hear, 30 percent of what we see, and 70 percent of what we speak. Cited in William E. Arnold and Lynne McClure, Communication Training and Development, 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1996) 38.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Levels of Communication Intrapersonal Interpersonal Group Public Mass
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Communication Elements Model
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Critical Thinking Skills enables you to...This skill... Arrange informationOrganizing Store and retrieve information Remembering Formulate questions, collect data Information Gathering Define problems, set goals, select information Focusing
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Critical Thinking Skills cont. enables you to...This skill... Assess the quality of ideasEvaluating Combine, summarize, and restructure information Integrating Use prior knowledgeGenerating Clarify existing informationAnalyzing Adapted from Robert J. Marzano, Ronald S. Brandt, Carolyn Sue Hughes, Beau Fly Jones, Barbara Z. Presseisen, Stuart C. Rankin, and Charles Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1988) 66, Copyright 1988 by ACSD. Reprinted with permission of the publishers.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 2 The Ethics of Public Speaking
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Principles of Ethics All parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Responsibilities of an Ethical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 “Fair Use” Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 2 The Ethics of Public Speaking
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Principles of Ethics All parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Responsibilities of an Ethical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 “Fair Use” Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 4 Responding to Speeches
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Listening... is intermittent.... is a learned skill.... is active.... implies using the message received.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 The Process of Listening You get the stimuli You focus on stimuli You attach meanings to stimuli You integrate the message into your frame of reference You judge the merits of the information You decide what to do with the information ReceiveSelectInterpretUnderstandEvaluateResolve
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Obstacles to Effective Listening Physical distractions Physiological distractions Psychological distractions Factual distractions Semantic distractions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Promoting Better Listening Desire to listen. Focus on the message. Listen for main ideas. Understand the speaker’s point of view.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Promoting Better Listening cont. Withhold judgment. Reinforce the message. Provide feedback. Listen with the body. Listen critically.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 A Model of Criticism This model of criticism is adapted from Beverly Whitaker Long, “Evaluating Performed Literature,” Studies in Interpretation, vol.2, eds. Esther M. Doyle and Virginia Hastings Floyd (Amsterdam: Podopi, 1977) See also her earlier article: Beverly Whitaker, “Critical Reasons and Literature in Performance,” The Speech Teacher 18 (November 1969): Long attributes this three-part model of criticism to Arnold Isenberg, “Critical Communication,” The Philosophical Review (July 1949): Judgments: statements of approval or disapproval, like or dislike Reasons: Justifications offered for judgments Norms: Standards of relative worth or goodness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Guidelines for Critiquing Speeches Begin with a positive statement. Target a few key areas for improvement. Organize your comments. Be specific. Be honest but tactful.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Guidelines for Critiquing Speeches cont. Personalize your comments. Reinforce the positive. Problem-solve the negative. Provide the speaker with a plan of action. End with a positive statement.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Guidelines for Acting on Criticism Focus on what your critics say, not how they say it. Seek clear and specific feedback. Evaluate the feedback you receive. Develop a plan of action.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 5 Analyzing Your Audience
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Audience Demographics Age Gender Ethnicity Education Religion Economic Status Group Membership
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Levels of Influence Behavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2 nd ed. (New York: Random, 1970) Self-Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Belonging and Love Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 VALS Typology Survivors Makers Strivers Believers Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 VALS Typology cont. Experiencers Achievers Thinkers Innovators Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Specific Speaking Situations Types of audiences Audience disposition Size of audience Occasion Physical environment Time
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 6 Selecting Your Speech Topic This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Choosing Your Speech Topic You should... First, generate a list: –Self-generated –Audience-generated –Occasion-generated –Research-generated
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Second, select a topic. –Am I interested? –Is the topic important? –Can I find supporting material? –Do I understand the topic? Third, focus the topic.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Visual Brainstorming
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Fourth, determine the general purpose. –To inform –To persuade –To entertain
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Fifth, formulate your specific purpose. –General purpose –Intended audience –Goal of your speech Finally, word your thesis statement. If necessary, develop your speech title.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 7 Researching Your Topic
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Assess Your Personal Knowledge Article file Quotation file Speech file
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Develop Your Research Plan What information do I need? Where am I most likely to find it? How do I obtain this information? What about time constraints?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Collect Your Information Magazines and journals Newspapers Government documents Books
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Collect Your Information cont. Reference works Television and radio World Wide Web Interviews Calling, writing, ing for info
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Record Your Information What to record How to record information
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Conclude Your Search “If the last 10 percent of your planned research time has brought excellent results, you are doubtless on a productive new track and should extend the project. But if the last 25 percent of your scheduled time has brought greatly diminished results, this fact is a signal to wind up your research.” Alden Todd, Finding Facts Fast, 2 nd ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed, 1979) 14.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 8 Supporting Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Purposes of Supporting Materials Clarity Vividness Credibility
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Supporting Materials
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Examples Brief Extended Actual Hypothetical
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Definition Synonym Etymology Example Operation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Narration Personal Third-person
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Comparison and Contrast Literal Figurative
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Statistics Don’t rely exclusively on statistics. Round off. Use familiar measures. Use presentational aids. Stress their impact.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Testimony Direct quotation Paraphrase
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Tests of Evidence Is the evidence quoted in context? Is the source of the evidence an expert? Is the source of the evidence unbiased? Is the evidence relevant to the point? Is the evidence specific? Is the evidence sufficient to prove the point? Is the evidence timely?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Evaluating Electronic Information Purpose Expertise Objectivity Accuracy Timeliness This checklist was adapted from Serena Fenton and Grace Reposa, “Evaluating the Goods,” Technology & Learning Sept. 1998: 28-32; Caroline L. Gilson, “Evaluating Information Resources,” 3 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 ; Esther Grassian, “Thinking Critically About World Wide Web Resources,” 10 Oct. 1997, UCLA College Library, 10 March 1999 ; Stephanie Michel, “Evaluating Information on the World Wide Web,” 9 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 ; Keith Stranger, “Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources,” 30 Nov. 1998, University Library, Eastern Michigan Univ., 4 March
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Citing Your Sources “Oral footnotes”... Enhance the credibility of what you say. Help listeners find sources.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 9 Organizing the Body of Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Organizational Patterns Topical Chronological Spatial Causal Pro-con Mnemonic or gimmick Problem-solution Need-plan
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 The “4 S” Strategy Signpost State Support Summarize
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Connect the Key Ideas Complementary Causal Contrasting Chronological
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 10 Introducing and Concluding Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Organize the Introduction First, get your audience’s attention. –Question your audience. –Arouse curiosity. –Stimulate imagination. –Promise something beneficial. –Amuse your audience. –Energize your audience. –Acknowledge and compliment.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Organize the Introduction cont. Second, state your topic. Third, establish the importance of your topic. Fourth, establish your credibility. Finally, preview your key ideas.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Organize the Conclusion Summarize your key ideas. Activate audience response to your speech. Provide closure.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 11 Outlining Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 An Outline... Tests the scope of content. Tests the logical relations of the speech. Tests the relevance of supporting ideas. Checks the balance of the speech. Serves as notes during delivery.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Principles of Outlining Singularity Consistency Adequacy Uniformity Parallelism
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Stages of Outlining Working Outline Formal Outline Speaking Outline
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 12 Wording Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Functions of Language Communicate ideas. Send messages about the user. Strengthen social bonds. Serve as instrument of play. Check language use. Based on Roman Jakobson, “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetic,” in Style in Language, ed. Thomas A. Sebok (Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1964)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Use Language Correctly “Stronger English comes from making stronger choices, and exact wording, when it becomes a habit, can become fun as well as fascinating.” --Jeffrey McQuain
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Use Language Clearly Use specific language. Use familiar language.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Use Language Vividly Use active language. Appeal to listeners’ senses. Use figures of speech. Use structures of speech.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Use Language Appropriately Use oral style. Use inclusive language.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 13 Delivering Your Speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Principles of Nonverbal Communication Some communication is deliberate, while some is unintentional. Few nonverbal signals have universal meaning.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Principles of Nonverbal Communication cont. When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, we trust the nonverbal message. The audience’s perception can take precedence over your intent.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Methods of Delivery Impromptu From memory From a manuscript Extemporaneous
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Effective Delivery... Helps everyone. Looks and feels natural, comfortable, and spontaneous. Is best when the audience is not aware of it.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Elements of Vocal Delivery Rate and pause Volume Pitch and inflection Voice quality Articulation and pronunciation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Elements of Physical Delivery Appearance Posture Facial expression Eye contact Movement Gestures
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 14 Using Presentational Aids
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Presentational Aids Increase message clarity. Reinforce message impact. Increase speaker dynamism. Enhance speaker confidence.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Presentational Aids Objects Graphics –Picture –Diagram –Line Graph –Bar Graph –Pie Graph –Chart –Map
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Presentational Aids cont. Projections –Still –Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids Before the speech... –Determine information to be presented. –Select the best type of aid. –Ensure easy viewing by audience. –Make sure information is clear. –Construct professional-looking aid.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont... –Practice with aid. –Arrange for safe transportation. –Carry back-up supplies. –Properly position aid. –Test presentational aid.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech... –Conceal, then reveal. –Talk to audience—not aid. –Refer to aid. –Keep aid in view. –Conceal aid after you have used it. –Use handouts with caution.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 14 Using Presentational Aids
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Presentational Aids Increase message clarity. Reinforce message impact. Increase speaker dynamism. Enhance speaker confidence.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Presentational Aids Objects Graphics –Picture –Diagram –Line Graph –Bar Graph –Pie Graph –Chart –Map
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Presentational Aids cont. Projections –Still –Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids Before the speech... –Determine information to be presented. –Select the best type of aid. –Ensure easy viewing by audience. –Make sure information is clear. –Construct professional-looking aid.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont... –Practice with aid. –Arrange for safe transportation. –Carry back-up supplies. –Properly position aid. –Test presentational aid.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech... –Conceal, then reveal. –Talk to audience—not aid. –Refer to aid. –Keep aid in view. –Conceal aid after you have used it. –Use handouts with caution.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Purposes of Informative Speeches Impart knowledge Enhance understanding Permit application
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Topic Categories for Informative Speeches People Objects Places Events
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Topic Categories for Informative Speeches cont. Processes Concepts Conditions Issues
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Speaking to Inform Stress informative purpose. Be specific. Be clear. Be accurate. Limit ideas and supporting materials.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Speaking to Inform cont. Be relevant. Be objective. Use appropriate organization. Use appropriate forms of support. Use effective delivery.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 16 The Strategy of Persuasion
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasion is... the process of influencing another person’s values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Influence OpposeNeutralFavor Strongly Moderately SlightlySlightly Moderately Strongly
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 The Pyramid of Persuasion Behavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Persuasive Speeches Speeches to Convince Speeches to Actuate Speeches to Inspire
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Three Modes of Persuasion Ethos: Speaker credibility Logos: Logical appeal Pathos: Emotional appeal The Rhetoric of Aristotle, trans. Lane Cooper (New York: Appleton, 1960) 8.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Speaking Strategies...
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Strategies 1.Establish your credibility. –Convey competence. –Convey trustworthiness. –Convey dynamism.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Strategies cont. 2. Focus your goals. –Limit your goals. –Argue incrementally.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Strategies cont. 3. Connect with your listeners. –Assess listeners’ knowledge of topic. –Assess importance to audience. –Motivate your listeners. –Relate message to listeners’ values.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Strategies cont. 4. Organize your arguments. –Primacy theory. –Recency theory.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Persuasive Strategies cont. 5. Support your ideas. 6. Enhance your emotional appeals. –Tap audience values. –Use vivid examples. –Use emotive language. –Use effective delivery.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Chapter 17 The Structure of Persuasion
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Steps of an Argument You make a claim. You offer evidence. You show how the evidence proves the claim. For a more elaborate discussion of the structure of an argument, see Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge UP, 1974).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Refuting an Argument State the position you are refuting. State your position. Support your position. Show how your position undermines the opposing argument.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Argument
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Argument by Example Are the examples true? Are the examples relevant? Are the examples sufficient? Are the examples representative?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Argument by Analogy Are the similarities between cases relevant? Are any of the differences relevant?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Argument by Cause Does a causal relationship exist? Could the presumed cause produce the effect? Could the effect result from other causes?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Argument by Deduction Do the premises relate to each other? Is the major premise true? Is the minor premise true?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Argument by Authority Is the source an expert? Is the source unbiased?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Fallacies of Argument Hasty generalization False analogy Post hoc ergo propter hoc Slippery slope Red herring
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Fallacies of Argument cont. Appeal to tradition False dilemma False authority Bandwagon Ad hominem
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Requirements of Propositions Propositions... Express a judgment. Are debatable. Require proof.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Types of Propositions Propositions of Fact Propositions of Value Propositions of Policy
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Attention Need Satisfaction Visualization Action Raymie E. Mckerrow, Bruce E. Gronbeck, Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech Communication, 14 th ed. (New York: Addison-Longman, 2000) See also: Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Chicago: Scott, 1935).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2004 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public non educational performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.