Introducing the ‘Kerala Paradox’ Kerala

The Kerala Paradox Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox Infant Mortality

The Kerala Paradox Infant Mortality

So what’s going on?

Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule in Kerala

Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule In 1957, the Communist Party of India (CPI) wins elections in Kerala Begins to implement policy platform of land reform and policies of social development – i.e. public provision of education and healthcare

Problems

1 - What About West Bengal? Literacy Rates

What About West Bengal? Literacy Rates

What About West Bengal? Infant Mortality

What About West Bengal? Infant Mortality

2 - Why did Kerala have a Head Start? (Male) Literacy Rate, Kerala vs. UP Average 1957 – CPI comes into power in Kerala

Problem 3 – do public services explain Kerala’s social development record? Despite universal provision, many of the health and education services consumed are private, not public Even though up to 74% of rural households have a public primary health centre in the village, 42% of low standard of living households use the private sector as their main source of treatment In Kerala, the private medical sector is still the primary source of health care for up to 64% of households in urban areas and 60% of those in rural areas according to the 61st round of National Sample Survey (2004–2005), private per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average (41Rs for Kerala, 18Rs for India)

So:

1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society

So: 1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society 2. And that ‘something’ was important before 1957, but goes back further in Kerala’s history.

Theory II: Subnationalism

Kerala has a strong sense of Malayali ‘national’ identity, rooted in a common language (Malayalam), culture, and sense of belonging Kerala also has a long history of subnationalist mobilisation, ultimately via the Aikya Kerala (United Kerala) movement

Kathakali Kalaripayattu Onam: ‘National Festival of Kerala’ ‘National’ Art Forms of Kerala

Myth of Common Origin Common Culture Shared Language Print Media National Conscious -ness Anderson (1983) Connor (1978) Deutsch (1966) Geertz (1963) Gellner (1983) Hobsbawm (1983) Renan (1882) Smith (1989) Stalin (1954) Weber (1948)

Subnationalism in Indian States

Subnationalism As a result of a stronger sense of collective identity, the Malayali were prepared to invest more in public goods such as health and education Because of this history of collective action and subnational identification, stronger inter-religious and cross-caste community ties were formed, which has ensured greater participation in local democracy and collective monitoring of local schools, hospitals, and other public services

Subnationalist demands made to “promote Malayali welfare” Minister of Public Health (1970s): “the success of the Family Planning Program lies in viewing it in terms of the national interest” Chief Minister Achutanandan (2006): “The 50th anniversary of the formation of Kerala is intended for launching various developmental projects in the State … The fifty days of celebrations…would witness unique and the most comprehensive developmental programs in the history of the State”

Subnationalism in Indian States

The Kerala Paradox Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox Literacy Rates

Yet more theories

Matrilinealism

Kerala has had a matrilineal society since the 11th century practiced especially among the upper caste Nairs. The 1891 Census enumerated that close to 56% of families in Kerala were matrilineal: property was inherited by the whole family, not the oldest male Extensive development research shows best predictor of child welfare is maternal income and health, not just in India but also in Africa, Latin America, etc. In matrilineal societies, women have greater property rights and control over the household budget Therefore children are more likely to receive education and basic healthcare, once the possibility to purchase these exists. Kerala per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average, and private health spending is also high

Missionary activity

Christianity Kerala was a major entrepot for the spice trade since the 15th century, with exchange with the Middle East and Europe as a result, one of few states where Hindus do not form a clear majority (56%; 24% Muslim and 20% Christian) long history of missionary activity, setting up schools and community centers

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?

Religious competition and missionary activity

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital? Religious competition and missionary activity Missionary groups helped break down the caste system by providing education to the lower castes Competition forced other denominations (e.g. Hindus) to change their practices

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital? Kerala is religiously diverse but ethno-linguistically homogenous Very small adivasi population (1.1% compared to 7.5% across India) Alesina et al (2003) show significant negative cross-country relationship between ethnic diversity and public goods provision… …but significant positive relationship between religious diversity and provision of public goods Same relationship argued by Putnam (2007) for relationship between ethnic / religious heterogeneity and social capital

What can Kerala tell us about social development?

Social development Public opinion in favor of provision of social services Individual preferences in favor of collective welfare Formulation of social policy Implementation of social policy State action Political elites favor provision of social services Subnationalist identification Individual preferences in favor of political participation Collective action to monitor social services Political participation on the part of individuals Societal action CognitionBehavior It’s all very complicated Religious competition Private service provision Gender empowerment Breakdown of caste system

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