Conservation of Biodiversity IB syllabus: – AP Syllabus Ch. 8, 22,

Syllabus Statements 4.3.1: State the arguments for preserving species & habitats 4.3.2: Compare the role and activities of governmental & non-governmental organizations in preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity : State and explain the criteria used to design reserves 4.3.4: Evaluate the success of a named protected area : Discuss & evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the species based approach to conservation

Why should we worry about conservation? A.Ethics = we know what we are doing and its negative effects  is it right to continue this? B.Aesthetics = the natural world is more beautiful than strip malls and roads  should we keep it around? C.Genetic resources = end result of millions of years of evolution – unique gene combinations for disease resistance, chemical production, etc

Why should we worry about conservation? D.Commercial = many of the products we rely on result from the biotic component of the planet - opportunity cost  value of the next best alternative forgone as a result of making a choice -implies choice of results that are mutually exclusive E. Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to survive, soil provides the means for growing food, organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we need F. Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are all connected  effect one  effect it all

Opportunity Costs

How can we reduce biodiversity loss? 2 main approaches – ecosystem or species directed 1.Preventing premature extinction of species 2.Preserving & restoring ecosystems which provide habitats and resources for the world’s species

The Species ApproachThe Ecosystem Approach Goal Protect species from premature extinction Strategies Identify endangered species Protect their critical habitats Tactics Legally protect endangered species Manage habitat Propagate endangered species in captivity Reintroduce species into suitable habitats Goal Protect populations of species in their natural habitats Strategy Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems Tactics Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas Manage protected areas to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems

Protection of Wild species CITES – convention on international trade in endangered species (1975) 152 countries – 900 species regulated as endangered, 29,000 species regulated as threatened Helped reduce international trade in many organisms, organized international awareness, protected habitats Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak, Countries have a choice, value of organisms may increase

Protection of Wild species CBD – convention on biodiversity extends CITES to conserve biodiversity in general  172 countries Focused on reversing trends in loss of biodiversity

Biodiversity

National Legislation The Lacey Act – 1900 –Prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or their parts across state borders without a federal permit The Endangered Species Act – 1973 –Makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered or threatened species unless it is used (1) for approved scientific purposes or (2) to enhance the survival of the species

Other Means of protection Gene banks & Seed banks Botanical gardens, Farms Zoos & Aquariums Captive breeding & Reintroduction programs Aesthetic vs. Ecological value

Evaluating Species based Approaches – Captive breeding Strengths 1.Organisms safe from poachers 2.Ensure good chance of offspring survival 3.Artificial insemination possible 4.Cross fostering is possible – raised by parent of similar species Weaknesses 1.It is artificial 2.Organisms not born in the wild may not be able to survive reintroduction 3.Few actually returned to wild 4.Lack of habitat to return them to

Evaluating Species based Approaches – Aesthetic value Strengths 1.Tourism & recreation – use promotes interest 2.“Sexy megafauna” get public interested in conserving whole habitats 3.Personal approach appeals to people “Save the manatee” Weaknesses 1.More interactions with people – more damage potentially 2.People may overlook the deeper values

Evaluating Species based Approaches –Ecological values What’s good? 1.Shows people the true critical value of species 2.See how it effects us – food web links, nutrient cycling, keystone species What’s bad? 1.May go over the heads of the general public 2.May be hard to quantify this for some species

Preserves – If you save a habitat you get all of the species National Parks 1,100 parks in 120 countries US – established in 1912  55+ total parks Supplemented by state, county & local park systems

National parks and preservesNational forests(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

National parks and preservesNational forests(and Xs) National wildlife refuges

Moderate mineral deposits Rich mineral deposits Federal land

Moderate mineral deposits Rich mineral deposits Federal land

Park Problems Only 1% of parks in developing countries are actually protected, most are “paper parks” Often invaded by people looking for subsistence or those looking for profit Often too small to sustain larger species Nonnative invasions Parks are too popular  high traffic, pollution Lack of funding – overworked underpaid staff, Worn out facilities Nearby activities including logging, mining, grazing, power production, water diversion

Managing Parks successfully Currently practice natural regulation, treat as self sustaining ecosystem –Often too small to self sustain –Effected by nearby activities, destruction from within from unbalanced food webs (elk grazing) Conflicting goals (1) conserve nature, (2) make nature available to public Are there solutions?

Suggestions for the future 1.Integrate management for parks & nearby federal lands 2.Increase budget (1) add new parklands near old (2) buy existing private land within parks (3) maintenance 3.Locate commercial facilities outside of parks 4.Better surveys of wildlife conditions 5.Raise entry fees 6.Limit number of daily, yearly visitors 7.Encourage corporate sponsorship

How much land should be protected? Need a worldwide network of supported, connected refuges At least 20% of earth’s land area should be preserved – conservationist view –Areas vital to sustaining life on earth and continuing adaptation & evolution Less than current 10% should be preserved – developer view –Areas contain valuable resources to aid in economic growth

Costa Rica’s Example Nicaragua Costa Rica Pacific Ocean Panama Caribbean Sea Peninsula Osa Pacifico Central Cordillera Volcanica Central Bajo Tempisque Arenal Guanacastle Llanuras de Tortuguero La Amistad

Principles for reserve design 1.Ecosystems are rarely at a stable point – hard to lock them and protect them from change (nonequilibrium state) 2.Ecosystems which experience frequent, moderate disturbance have the greatest diversity (intermediate disturbance hypothesis) 3.View most reserves as habitat islands in a sea of developed or fragmented lands

Recall Island Biogeography theories Diversity on islands is a function of size and distance from mainland (balance extinction vs. colonization) Help determine … –Areas in greatest danger –Size of reserve that will be necessary –How closely must small reserves be spaced to allow immigration –Size & # of protective corridors connecting parks

The Island Effect Isolated ecosystems studied by MacArthur and Wilson in 1960’s Diversity effected by island size & degree of isolation Island Biogeography theory: diversity effected by –Rate of species immigration to island –Rate of extinction on island –Equilibrium point = species diversity

High Low Rate of immigration or extinction Equilibrium number Immigration and extinction rates Number of species on island (a) © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Island Biogeography Immigration and Extinction Effected by 1.Size: –small island has less immigration (small target), –Small island has fewer resources, more extinction 2.Distance from mainland: –Closer to mainland  more chance of immigration Applied in conservation for “habitat islands” like national parks surrounded by development

High Low Rate of immigration or extinction Small island Effect of island size Number of species on island (b) Large island © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Island Biogeography Data South Pacific Islands study looked at bird diversity as distance from New Guinea increased Caribbean Island study found bigger islands had more species diversity than smaller islands which were otherwise similar ,0004,0006,0008,00010,000 Distance from New Guinea (kilometers) Number of species (percentage of sample studied ) NEW GUINEA ,00010,000100,000 Area (square miles) Number of amphibian and reptile species 10 SABAMONTSERRATCUBA Hispaniola Puerto Rico Jamaica Cuba Montserrat Saba Redonda © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Critical Questions What shape should the reserve be? Is one large or many small reserves better? Is a heterogenous or homogenous reserve better? Should corridors connect small reserves together? What is the importance of buffer zones around reserves?

Core Both Reserves are the same area Which do you think would be better? Why?

The everglades a case study The value of wetlands 1.Flood control / water storage 2.Habitat for many species 3.Recharge for aquifer 4.Water filtration / purification Inland and coastal Wetlands are protected because of their value in terms of biodiversity, and the ecological & economic services they provide

Slight changes in elevation (only inches), water salinity, and soil create entirely different landscapes, each with its own community of plants and animals. Everglades Habitats

Everglades II Permits are required to fill or disturb wetlands in US > 3 acres Current attempts to weaken protective measures, small percentage even still remain Now trying for a zero net loss of wetlands  mitigation banking: destroy one, rebuild another Restoration & protection projects are often successful Also created for farm & sewage waste treatment

Everglades III South Florida – once 100 km wide knee deep sheet of water moving from Lk. Okeechobee to FL Bay On its way south it created various wetlands with a wide variety of species Sawgrass is the dominant plant species Today 56 endangered & threatened species reside there Supplies drinking water directly or through Floridian & Biscayne aquifers for 6-10 million people

Everglades IV Since 1948 most of water flow has been diverted by 2,250 km. of canals, pumping stations, etc. In 1960s meandering 103 mile long Kissimmee R. reformed into straight 84 mile canal by army corps of engineers Below Okeechobee intensified agriculture of sugar cane developed Now seeing (1) greater inputs of nutrients from fertilizer use (nitrogen & phosphorous) (2) Decreased volume of water, moving faster through the system (3) Increases in exotic & invasive species

( ) () GULF OF MEXICO Naples Fort Myers FLORIDA Florida Bay Everglades National Park Key Largo ATLANTIC OCEAN Miami Fort Lauderdale West Palm Beach Lake Okeechobee Unchannelized Channelized FLORIDA Area of detail Agricultural area Treatment marsh Water conservation area Canal miles kilometers Kissimmee River

Everglades V 1947 Everglades National Park established to preserve the lower end of the system Contains 20% remaining everglades Didn’t work because of all of the influences on the water to the north 90% of parks wading birds have disappeared Other vertebrate populations are down 75-90% Now the country’s most endangered national park Florida Bay suffering from less fresh water as well as cultural eutrophication Threatens reefs & fisheries in the Keys

1990 state & federal government agreed upon 38 year $7.8 billion restoration project 1.Restore curving flow of the Kissimmee River 2.Remove 400 km of canals blocking water flow south of Lk. Okeechobee 3.Buy 240 km 2 of farmland & allow it to flood to filter agricultural runoff before it reaches Everglades National Park (ENP) 4.Add land adjacent to ENP eastern border 5.Create a network of artificial marshes 6.Create 18 reservoirs & drill wells for storage & aquifer recharge in rainy season 7.Build new canals & reservoirs to capture current water lost & return it to ENP

But… ENP does not benefit from the first 10 years, $4 billion of the project Plan seems to favor agricultural / consumer uses of water over restoring the actual habitat The plan does not specify how much of the water moving south will actually go to ENP Somehow we must undo 120 years of agricultural & urban development in the area until it is too late

Evaluation 1.Has the protection of the everglades been successful thus far? 2.Does the local community support it? Think about the farmers in the area, the cities of south east FL, etc. 3.Is there enough funding? 4.Where did the research fail in the past? Where might it fail in the future?

Organizations supporting Conservation

WWF: World Wildlife Fund Established in 1961 “to conserve the natural environment and ecological processes worldwide”. WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: –conserving the world’s biological diversity –ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable –promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

Role – Promoting awareness & conservation of wildlife Activities – Directed mostly at wildlife conservation, work with companies like Nike in reducing CO 2 emissions, Aid Use of the media – International, internet, newsletters Speed of Response – stays current on issues Diplomatic constraints – international law & coordination Enforceability – Limited, no real governmental power, but broad passive influence

Greenpeace Greenpeace exists because this fragile earth deserves a voice. It needs solutions. It needs change. It needs action. Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, with a presence in 40 countries across Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept donations from governments or corporations but relies on contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants. As a global organization, Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planet's biodiversity and environment. We campaign to: --Stop climate change --Protect ancient forests --Save the oceans --Stop whaling --Say no to genetic engineeringStop climate changeProtect ancient forestsSave the oceansStop whalingSay no to genetic engineering

The current Rainbow Warrior was launched on 10 July The originaloriginal vessel was sunk in 1985 by agents of the French government the French government in an attempt to foil protests of their nuclear weapons testing in the Pacific. The plan backfired, sparking worldwide outrage, and the rebuilt ship proved that "you can't sink a rainbow" when it returned to battle successfully against the testing programme. Nuclear testing ended at Moruroa in The ship's name was inspired by a North American Indian prophecy which foretells a time when human greed will make the Earth sick, and a mythical band of warriors will descend from a rainbow to save it.

Role - More extreme environmental activist group Activities – Greenpeace's history began in A group of ecologists opposed to the war in Vietnam contested US nuclear testing in the north Pacific. They decided simply to position themselves in the middle of the testing zone. Use of the media - Embarked on a campaign to save the whales. Using Zodiac inflatables, they put themselves between the whales and the harpoons, generating images too sensational not to broadcast and creating new public pressure. Speed of Response – rapid, high profile, technological approach Diplomatic constraints – Nonviolent but radical group - Greenpeace's scientific and market research becomes pressure tools. Enforceability - Creative nonviolent action mobilizes public opinion against the unsustainable practices of governments or corporations. The objective is to obtain as much coverage as possible through the media in order to mobilize public opinion on certain issues.

UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme Established in 1972 To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

Role – negotiate, monitor, implement environmental treaties Activities – focus on consumption issues, energy, food, youth programs Use of the media – limited, website Speed of Response – slower, through government action Diplomatic constraints – tied to the UN Enforceability – underfunded, undersupported

World Conservation Strategy The World Conservation Strategy clarified the ideas of sustainable development. Its concerns were with the link between the economy and the environment. The environmental programme (UNEP) together with the International Union of the Conservation of the Nation (IUCN) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) posed ideas to conserve nature. Therefore, suggesting that economic development and growth should be used to enhance the ability of societies to conserve nature. The main aim of the Strategy was to explain how development and conservation of the environment can work together. The World Conservation Strategy had a focus on conservation and in placing the main focus on this it does not place as much emphasis on political, social, cultural and economic issues. This was different to the United Nations Conference on Human Environment which was held in Another difference between the World Conservation Strategy and UNCHE is that the World Conservation Strategy developed ideas on how they could implement and develop sustainable development. Quote from the Conference: "This is the kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. Today it may seem visionary but it is attainable. To more and more people it also appears our only rational option". (The World Conservation Strategy, IUCN, UNEP, WWF 1980)

World Conservation Strategy (1980) –Secretariat/focal point: IUCN/UNEP/WWF Aim/comment: To help advance the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources. The Strategy: explains the contribution of living resource conservation to human survival and to sustainable development; identifies the priority conservation issues and the main requirements for dealing with them; proposes effective ways for achieving the Strategy's aim.

World Conservation Strategy Summary Points 1.Maintenance of essential life support systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and ecological processes 2.Preservation of genetic and species diversity 3.Sustainable use of species and ecosystems

References (WWF site)