Chapter – 8(EIGHT) Motivation Process

What is Motivation? Motivation is the process of creating enthusiasm, job satisfaction, morale, among employees of the organization. According to Stephen p. Robbins “Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.” Here Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. Direction is toward beneficial goal, and Persistence is the how long a person tries.

The Nature of Motivation The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors. The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace Determinants of Individual Performance Motivation—the desire to do the job. Ability—the capability to do the job. Work environment—the resources needed to do the job.

Figure : The Motivation Framework

Content Perspectives on Motivation Focus on needs and deficiencies of individuals Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question, “What factors in the workplace motivate people?” Content Perspectives of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McClelland’s Achievement, Power, and Affiliation Needs

The Need Hierarchy Approach Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs It states that people must satisfy five groups of needs in the following order:-  Physiological Needs  Security Needs  Belongingness Needs  Esteem Needs  Self Actualization Needs

Physiological Needs: It represents the basic issues of survival and biological function, like – food, sex, water. Security Needs: It refers a secure physical and emotional environment. For example – the desire of housing and clothing and the need to be free from worry about money and job security.

Belongingness Needs: It refers the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one’s peers. These needs are satisfied for most people by family and community relationships outside work and friendships on the jobs.

Esteem Needs: It comprises two sets of needs: the needs for a positive self - image and self – respect and the need for recognition and respect from others. Self Actualization: It means realizing one’s potential for continued growth and individual development. For example – a manager could give employees a chance to participate in making decision about their jobs.

Figure 10.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.

The Need Hierarchy Approach Weaknesses of Maslow’s theory Five levels of need are not always present. Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same. Cultural differences in categories and hierarchies.

The ERG Theory To recover the criticism of Maslow’s hierarchy theory ERG theory was developed. This theory suggests that people’s needs are grouped into three possibly overlapping categories – existence, relatedness, and growth.

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors. Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums: Motivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

Figure :The Two Factor Theory of Motivation

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Presence Absence

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Motivation is a two-stage process: Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking motivation. Providing employees the opportunity to experience increase motivational factors through the use of job enrichment and the redesign of jobs. Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory Interview findings are subject to different explanations. Sample population was not representative. Subsequent research has not upheld theory.

Individual Human Needs (McClelland) The need for achievement The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past. The need for affiliation The desire for human companionship and acceptance. The need for power The desire to be influential in a group and to be in control of one’s environment.

Process Perspectives on Motivation Focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals. Process Perspectives of Motivation Expectancy Theory Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory Equity Theory X and Y Theory.

Expectancy Theory… Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it. Assumes that: Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and environmental forces. People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations. Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals. People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.

Expectancy Theory It suggests that employees’ motivation depends on two things – how much we want something and how likely we think we to get it. Expectancy model suggests four particulars, like – Effort, Performance, Outcomes, and Valence

Figure :The Expectancy Model of Motivation

Elements of Expectancy Theory Effort-to-Performance Expectancy The individual’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance. Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy The individual’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific outcome, or consequence or reward in an organizational setting.

Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d) Outcomes (Consequences) and Valences Valence is an index of how much an individual values a particular outcome. It is also the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive outcomes have negative valences. Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.

Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d) For individual motivated behavior (effort) to occur: Effort-to-performance expectancy (the belief that effort will lead to high performance) must be greater than zero. Performance-to-outcome expectancy (performance will result in certain outcomes) must be greater than zero. The sum of the valences must be greater than zero—the outcome/reward must have value to the individual .

Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory Assumptions: If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied. High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction. Types of rewards: Extrinsic rewards—outcomes set and awarded by external parties (e.g., pay and promotions). Intrinsic rewards—outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

Figure :Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory Source: Edward E. Lawler III and Lyman W. Porter, “The Effect of Performance on Job Satisfaction,” Industrial Relations, October 1967, p. 23. Used with permission of the University of California.

Equity Theory People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance. Equity is an individual’s belief that the treatment he or she receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others. Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people:

Equity Theory (cont’d) Conditions of and reactions to equity comparisons: Feeling equitably rewarded. Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate. Feeling under-rewarded—try to reduce inequity. Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off. Change outcomes by demanding a raise. Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others. Leave situation by quitting the job. Change comparisons by choosing another object person.

Equity Theory (cont’d) Conditions of and reactions to equity comparisons: Feeling over-rewarded. Increase or decrease inputs. Distort ratios by rationalizing. Help the object person gain more outcomes.

X and Y Theory Douglas McGregor developed a motivation theory in 1960 which proposed two distinct views of human beings: 1. Theory X (negative) – assume lower order needs dominate individuals. and 2. Theory Y (positive) – assume higher order needs dominate individuals

X and Y Theory Conti.. The basic concept of Theory X – a. Employees inherently dislike work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it b. Since employee dislike work they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. c. Employee will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. d. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

X and Y Theory Conti.. The basic concept of Theory Y– a. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. b. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objective. c. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. d. The ability to make innovation decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.