0. Motivation
Concepts

1. Direction Intensity Persistence
What Is Motivation?
Direction
Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward the attainment of a goal. Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we discuss the topic of motivation. However, unless effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization, high intensity is no guarantee of favorable job-performance outcomes. Quality of effort, therefore, is just as important as intensity of effort. Finally, persistence (how long a person can maintain effort) is important. A motivated person stays with a task long enough to achieve his or her goal.
Intensity
Persistence

2. What Is Motivation? Motivation Key Elements
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
Key Elements
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Toward beneficial goal
Persistence: How long a person tries

3. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
There is a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming

4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs
Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
Self
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1

5. Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order.

6. Managers See Workers as…
Theory X
Managers See Workers as…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Having Little Ambition
Theory Y
Managers See Workers as…
Enjoying Work
Accepting Responsibility
Self-Directed
Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.
3. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.
Since they see people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand.

7. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites of the same thing!
Hygiene Factors
Salary
Work Conditions
Company Policies
Motivators
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Separate Constructs
Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction
Motivation Factors—Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

8. Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–2

9. Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3

10. David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships
Bottom Line
Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior.
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

11. Matching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4

12. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.
Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!

13. Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on:
Goal commitment
“I want to do it & I can do it”
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
National culture

14. Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Self-Efficacy
An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves

15. Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences
Assumptions:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

16. Equity Theory Equity Theory Referent Comparisons:
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside

17. Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8

18. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)

19. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

20. Ethical Values and Behaviors of Leaders
Expectancy Theory
Ethical Values and Behaviors of Leaders
Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,
Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
If they perform, they will be rewarded and
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about.

21. Chapter Check-up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each morning saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t have to be here, huh?” Knowing this, which theory gives us insight as to why Elizabeth may not be motivated at work?

22. Chapter Check-up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X manager, as she/he assumes employees don’t like work and/or want to be there.

23. Chapter Check-up: Motivation
If you study really hard and only get a B on an exam, but your classmate barely studies at all and gets an A, what theory will help explain why you feel less motivated to go to class?

24. Putting It All Together